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NY, Westchester 10506, Bedford, NY, Westchester 10507, Bedford Hills, NY, Westchester 10509, Brewster, NY, Putnam 10509, Sears Corners, NY, Putnam 10509, Southeast, NY, Putnam 10510, Briarcliff Manor, NY, Westchester 10510, Briarcliff Mnr, NY, Westchester 10510, Scarborough, NY, Westchester 10511, Buchanan, NY, Westchester 10512, Carmel, NY, Putnam 10512, Farmers Mills, NY, Putnam 10512, Kent Cliffs, NY, Putnam 10512, Lake Carmel, NY, Putnam 10512, Meades Corner, NY, Putnam 10514, Chappaqua, NY, Westchester 10516, Cold Spring, NY, Putnam 10516, Nelsonville, NY, Putnam 10516, North Highland, NY, Putnam 10516, Philipstown, NY, Putnam 10517, Crompond, NY, Westchester 10518, Cross River, NY, Westchester 10519, Croton Falls, NY, Westchester 10520, Croton Hudson, NY, Westchester 10520, Croton On Hudson, NY, Westchester 10521, Croton On Hudson, NY, Westchester 10521, Crugers, NY, Westchester 10522, Dobbs Ferry, NY, Westchester 10523, Elmsford, NY, Westchester 10524, Garrison, NY, Putnam 10524, Manitou, NY, Putnam 10526, Goldens Brg, NY, Westchester 10526, Goldens Bridge, NY, Westchester 10527, Granite Springs, NY, Westchester 10528, Harrison, NY, Westchester 10530, Hartsdale, NY, Westchester 10532, Hawthorne, NY, Westchester 10533, East Irvington, NY, Westchester 10533, Irvington, NY, Westchester 10533, Irvington On Hudson, NY, Westchester 10535, Jefferson Valley, NY, Westchester 10536, Katonah, NY, Westchester 10536, Lake Katonah, NY, Westchester 10537, Lake Peekskill, NY, Putnam 10538, Larchmont, NY, Westchester 10540, Lincolndale, NY, Westchester 10541, Lake Mahopac, NY, Putnam 10541, Lake Secor, NY, Putnam 10541, Mahopac, NY, Putnam 10542, Mahopac Falls, NY, Putnam 10543, Mamaroneck, NY, Westchester 10545, Maryknoll, NY, Westchester 10546, Millwood, NY, Westchester 10547, Lake Mohegan, NY, Westchester 10547, Mohegan Lake, NY, Westchester 10548, Montrose, NY, Westchester 10549, Bedford Corners, NY, Westchester 10549, Mount Kisco, NY, Westchester 10550, Mount 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Pocantico Hills, NY, Westchester 10591, Sleepy Hollow Manor, NY, Westchester 10591, Tarrytown, NY, Westchester 10594, Thornwood, NY, Westchester 10595, East View, NY, Westchester 10595, Valhalla, NY, Westchester 10596, Verplanck, NY, Westchester 10597, Waccabuc, NY, Westchester 10598, Yorktown, NY, Westchester 10598, Yorktown Heights, NY, Westchester 10598, Yorktown Hgts, NY, Westchester 10600, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10601, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10602, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10603, North White Plains, NY, Westchester 10603, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10604, East White Plains, NY, Westchester 10604, West Harrison, NY, Westchester 10604, Westchester Airport, NY, Westchester 10604, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10605, Gedney, NY, Westchester 10605, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10606, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10607, Bra 1, NY, Westchester 10607, Greenburgh, NY, Westchester 10607, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10625, General Foods Corp, NY, Westchester 10625, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10629, New York Tele Co, NY, Westchester 10629, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10633, N Y State Tax, NY, Westchester 10633, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10650, Texaco Co, NY, Westchester 10650, White Plains, NY, Westchester 10700, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10701, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10702, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10703, North, NY, Westchester 10703, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10704, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10705, South, NY, Westchester 10705, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10706, Hastings On Hudson, NY, Westchester 10706, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10707, Tuckahoe, NY, Westchester 10707, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10708, Bronxville, NY, Westchester 10708, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10709, Eastchester, NY, Westchester 10709, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10710, Centuck, NY, Westchester 10710, Yonkers, NY, Westchester 10800, New Rochelle, NY, Westchester 10800, Rochelle, NY, Westchester 10801, New Rochelle, NY, Westchester 10802, New Rochelle, NY, Westchester 10803, New 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Middletown, NY, Orange 10940, Scotchtown, NY, Orange 10941, Middletown, NY, Orange 10943, Blue Cross/Blue Shield, NY, Orange 10943, Middletown, NY, Orange 10950, Monroe, NY, Orange 10951, Rockland M P C, NY, Rockland 10952, Chestnut Ridge, NY, Rockland 10952, Monsey, NY, Rockland 10953, Mountainville, NY, Orange 10954, Bardonia, NY, Rockland 10954, Nanuet, NY, Rockland 10956, Clarkstown, NY, Rockland 10956, New City, NY, Rockland 10958, New Hampton, NY, Orange 10959, New Milford, NY, Orange 10960, Central Nyack, NY, Rockland 10960, Grandview, NY, Rockland 10960, Grandview On Hudson, NY, Rockland 10960, Nyack, NY, Rockland 10960, South Nyack, NY, Rockland 10960, Upper Grandview, NY, Rockland 10960, Upper Nyack, NY, Rockland 10962, Orangeburg, NY, Rockland 10963, Otisville, NY, Orange 10964, Palisades, NY, Rockland 10965, Chestnut Ridge, NY, Rockland 10965, Pearl River, NY, Rockland 10968, Piermont, NY, Rockland 10969, Pine Island, NY, Orange 10970, Mount Ivy, NY, Rockland 10970, Pomona, NY, Rockland 10973, Slate Hill, NY, Orange 10974, Sloatsburg, NY, Rockland 10974, Sterlington, NY, Rockland 10975, Southfields, NY, Orange 10976, Sparkill, NY, Rockland 10977, Chestnut Ridge, NY, Rockland 10977, New Hempstead, NY, Rockland 10977, New Square, NY, Rockland 10977, Spring Valley, NY, Rockland 10979, Sterling Forest, NY, Orange 10980, Grassy Point, NY, Rockland 10980, Stony Point, NY, Rockland 10981, Sugar Loaf, NY, Orange 10982, Tallman, NY, Rockland 10983, Tappan, NY, Rockland 10984, Thiells, NY, Rockland 10985, Thompson Ridge, NY, Orange 10986, Tomkins Cove, NY, Rockland 10987, Tuxedo, NY, Orange 10987, Tuxedo Park, NY, Orange 10988, Unionville, NY, Orange 10989, Valley Cottage, NY, Rockland 10990, Warwick, NY, Orange 10992, Washingtonville, NY, Orange 10993, West Haverstraw, NY, Rockland 10994, West Nyack, NY, Rockland 10995, Prentice Hall Co, NY, Rockland 10995, West Nyack, NY, Rockland 10996, United States Military Acade, NY, Orange 10996, West Point, NY, Orange 10996, West Point Military Reservat, NY, Orange 10997, U S C C, NY, Orange 10997, West Point, NY, Orange 10998, Westtown, NY, Orange 11001, Bellerose Village, NY, Nassau 11001, Floral Park, NY, Nassau 11002, Floral Park, NY, Nassau 11003, Alden Manor, NY, Nassau 11003, Argo Village, NY, Nassau 11003, Elmont, NY, Nassau 11003, Floral Park, NY, Nassau 11003, Locustwood, NY, Nassau 11003, Meacham, NY, Nassau 11003, South Floral Park, NY, Nassau 11004, Floral Park, NY, Queens 11004, Glen Oaks, NY, Queens 11005, Floral Park, NY, Queens 11010, Franklin Square, NY, Nassau 11020, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11020, Great Nk, NY, Nassau 11020, Grt Neck, NY, Nassau 11020, Gt Neck, NY, Nassau 11020, University Gardens, NY, Nassau 11021, Allenwood, NY, Nassau 11021, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11021, Great Neck Estates, NY, Nassau 11021, Kensington, NY, Nassau 11021, Russell Gardens, NY, Nassau 11021, Saddle Rock Estates, NY, Nassau 11021, Thomaston, NY, Nassau 11022, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11022, Lake Gardens, NY, Nassau 11023, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11023, Harbor Hills, NY, Nassau 11023, Saddle Rock, NY, Nassau 11024, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11024, Kenilworth, NY, Nassau 11024, Kings Point, NY, Nassau 11024, Usmma Contract Sta, NY, Nassau 11025, American Express, NY, Nassau 11025, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11026, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11027, Great Neck, NY, Nassau 11030, Manhasset, NY, Nassau 11030, Munsey Park, NY, Nassau 11030, Plandome, NY, Nassau 11030, Plandome Heights, NY, Nassau 11030, Plandome Manor, NY, Nassau 11040, Garden City Park, NY, Nassau 11040, Gdn City Park, NY, Nassau 11040, Herricks, NY, Nassau 11040, Lakeville Estates, NY, Nassau 11040, Manhasset Hills, NY, Nassau 11040, N H P, NY, Nassau 11040, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11041, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11041, Visa, NY, Nassau 11042, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11043, Independent Elect Of Amer, NY, Nassau 11043, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11044, Eastern States Bkcard Assoc, NY, Nassau 11044, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11050, Baxter Estates, NY, Nassau 11050, Flower Hill, NY, Nassau 11050, Harbor Acres, NY, Nassau 11050, Manorhaven, NY, Nassau 11050, Port Wash, NY, Nassau 11050, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11050, Pr Wash, NY, Nassau 11050, Pr Wshngtn, NY, Nassau 11050, Pt Wash, NY, Nassau 11050, Sands Point, NY, Nassau 11050, The Terrace, NY, Nassau 11051, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11051, Publishers Clear House, NY, Nassau 11052, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11052, Publishers Clear House, NY, Nassau 11053, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11053, Publishers Clearing House, NY, Nassau 11054, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11054, Publishers Clearing House, NY, Nassau 11055, Port Washington, NY, Nassau 11055, Publishers Clearing House, NY, Nassau 11096, Far Rockaway, NY, Nassau 11096, Inwood, NY, Nassau 11099, Eastern States Bkcard Assoc, NY, Nassau 11099, New Hyde Park, NY, Nassau 11100, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11101, Astoria, NY, Queens 11101, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11102, Astoria, NY, Queens 11102, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11103, Astoria, NY, Queens 11103, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11104, Astoria, NY, Queens 11104, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11104, Sunnyside, NY, Queens 11105, Astoria, NY, Queens 11105, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11106, Astoria, NY, Queens 11106, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11120, Citicorp, NY, Queens 11120, Long Island City, NY, Queens 11200, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11201, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11202, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11203, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11204, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11205, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11206, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11207, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11208, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11209, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11210, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11211, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11212, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11213, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11214, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11215, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11216, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11217, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11218, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11219, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11220, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11221, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11222, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11223, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11224, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11225, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11226, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11228, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11229, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11230, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11231, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11232, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11233, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11234, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11235, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11236, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11237, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11238, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11239, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11240, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11241, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11242, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11243, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11244, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11244, Con Edison, NY, Kings 11245, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11245, Chase Manhattan Bank, NY, Kings 11247, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11248, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11248, Workers Compensation, NY, Kings 11249, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11251, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11251, Brooklyn Navy Yard, NY, Kings 11252, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11254, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11254, Ny Telephone, NY, Kings 11255, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11255, Ny Telephone, NY, Kings 11256, Brooklyn, NY, Kings 11300, Flushing, NY, Queens 11351, Flushing, NY, Queens 11351, Postmaster, NY, Queens 11352, Flushing, NY, Queens 11353, Con Edison, NY, Queens 11353, Flushing, NY, Queens 11354, Flushing, NY, Queens 11354, Linden Hill, NY, Queens 11355, Flushing, NY, Queens 11356, College Point, NY, Queens 11356, Flushing, NY, Queens 11357, Beechurst, NY, Queens 11357, Flushing, NY, Queens 11357, Malba, NY, Queens 11357, Whitestone, NY, Queens 11358, Flushing, NY, Queens 11358, Station A, NY, Queens 11359, Flushing, NY, Queens 11359, Fort Totten, NY, Queens 11360, Bay Terrace, NY, Queens 11360, Bayside, NY, Queens 11360, Flushing, NY, Queens 11361, Bayside, NY, Queens 11361, Flushing, NY, Queens 11362, Douglaston, NY, Queens 11362, Flushing, NY, Queens 11362, Horace Harding, NY, Queens 11362, Little Neck, NY, Queens 11363, Douglaston, NY, Queens 11363, Flushing, NY, Queens 11363, Little Neck, NY, Queens 11364, Flushing, NY, Queens 11364, Oakland Gardens, NY, Queens 11365, Flushing, NY, Queens 11365, Fresh Meadows, NY, Queens 11365, Pomonok, NY, Queens 11366, Flushing, NY, Queens 11366, Fresh Meadows, NY, Queens 11366, Utopia, NY, Queens 11367, Flushing, NY, Queens 11367, Kew Garden Hills, NY, Queens 11367, Station C, NY, Queens 11368, Corona, NY, Queens 11368, Flushing, NY, Queens 11369, East Elmhurst, NY, Queens 11369, Flushing, NY, Queens 11370, East Elmhurst, NY, Queens 11370, Flushing, NY, Queens 11370, Trainsmeadow, NY, Queens 11371, Flushing, NY, Queens 11371, La Guardia Airport, NY, Queens 11372, Flushing, NY, Queens 11372, Jackson Heights, NY, Queens 11372, Jackson Hts, NY, Queens 11373, Corona-Elmhurst, NY, Queens 11373, Elmhurst, NY, Queens 11373, Flushing, NY, Queens 11374, Flushing, NY, Queens 11374, Rego Park, NY, Queens 11374, Rego Pk, NY, Queens 11375, Flushing, NY, Queens 11375, Forest Hills, NY, Queens 11375, Forest Hls, NY, Queens 11375, Parkside, NY, Queens 11377, Flushing, NY, Queens 11377, Woodside, NY, Queens 11378, Flushing, NY, Queens 11378, Maspeth, NY, Queens 11379, Flushing, NY, Queens 11379, Middle Village, NY, Queens 11379, Middle Vlg, NY, Queens 11380, Elmhurst A, NY, Queens 11380, Elmhurst-A, NY, Queens 11380, Flushing, NY, Queens 11381, Flushing, NY, Queens 11381, Metroplitan Museum Of Art, NY, Queens 11385, Flushing, NY, Queens 11385, Fresh Pond, NY, Queens 11385, Glendale, NY, Queens 11385, Ridgewood, NY, Queens 11386, Flushing, NY, Queens 11386, Ridgewood, NY, Queens 11388, Flushing, NY, Queens 11390, Contest And Large Vol, NY, Queens 11390, Flushing, NY, Queens 11400, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11402, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11402, New York Tele, NY, Queens 11405, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11405, Motor Vehicle Bureau, NY, Queens 11406, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11406, Jamaica Savings, NY, Queens 11407, Court House, NY, Queens 11407, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11408, Catholic Med Ctr, NY, Queens 11408, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11410, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11410, New York Tele Co, NY, Queens 11411, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11412, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11412, Saint Albans, NY, Queens 11412, Springfield Gardens, NY, Queens 11413, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11413, Laurelton, NY, Queens 11413, Springfield Gardens, NY, Queens 11414, Howard Beach, NY, Queens 11414, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11414, Kew Gardens, NY, Queens 11415, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11415, Kew Gardens, NY, Queens 11416, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11416, Ozone Park, NY, Queens 11417, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11417, Ozone Park, NY, Queens 11418, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11418, Richmond Hill, NY, Queens 11419, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11419, South Richmond Hill, NY, Queens 11420, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11420, S Ozone Park, NY, Queens 11420, S Ozone Pk, NY, Queens 11421, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11421, Woodhaven, NY, Queens 11422, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11422, Rosedale, NY, Queens 11423, Hollis, NY, Queens 11423, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11424, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11425, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11425, Vet Admin Ext Care Ctr, NY, Queens 11426, Bellerose, NY, Queens 11426, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11427, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11427, Queens Village, NY, Queens 11428, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11428, Queens Village, NY, Queens 11429, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11429, Queens Village, NY, Queens 11430, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11430, John F Kennedy Airport, NY, Queens 11431, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11432, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11432, Jamaica Est, NY, Queens 11433, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11434, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11434, Rochdale Village, NY, Queens 11435, Briarwood, NY, Queens 11435, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11436, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11436, S Ozone Pk, NY, Queens 11439, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11440, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11440, Queens Gen Hosp, NY, Queens 11441, Ind Home For The Blind, NY, Queens 11441, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11446, Creedmoor State Hosp, NY, Queens 11446, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11447, City Collector, NY, Queens 11447, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11450, 125-10 Queens Blvd, NY, Queens 11450, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11451, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11451, York College, NY, Queens 11452, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11452, York College, NY, Queens 11460, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11470, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11470, Manufacturers Hanover, NY, Queens 11472, Irving Trust, NY, Queens 11472, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11474, Chemical Bank, NY, Queens 11474, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11476, Bankers Trust, NY, Queens 11476, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11478, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11478, Morgan Guaranty, NY, Queens 11480, European Amer Bank, NY, Queens 11480, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11482, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11482, National Bank Of N A, NY, Queens 11484, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11484, N Y C Bank-Amf-Jfk, NY, Queens 11486, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11486, N Y C-Bank-Amf-Jfk, NY, Queens 11488, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11488, N Y C-Bank-Amf-Jfk, NY, Queens 11499, Amf/Jfk Incoming Express Mai, NY, Queens 11499, Jamaica, NY, Queens 11501, Mineola, NY, Nassau 11507, Albertson, NY, Nassau 11507, Searingtown, NY, Nassau 11509, Atlantic Beach, NY, Nassau 11510, Baldwin, NY, Nassau 11510, Baldwin Harbor, NY, Nassau 11510, N Baldwin, NY, Nassau 11510, North Baldwin, NY, Nassau 11514, Carle Pl, NY, Nassau 11514, Carle Place, NY, Nassau 11516, Cedarhurst, NY, Nassau 11518, Bay Park, NY, Nassau 11518, E Rockaway, NY, Nassau 11518, East Rockaway, NY, Nassau 11520, Freeport, NY, Nassau 11530, Garden City, NY, Nassau 11530, Garden City S, NY, Nassau 11530, Garden City South, NY, Nassau 11530, Roosevelt Field, NY, Nassau 11530, Stewart Manor, NY, Nassau 11531, Garden City, NY, Nassau 11531, Roosevelt Field, NY, Nassau 11535, Abmps, NY, Nassau 11535, Garden City, NY, Nassau 11536, Garden City, NY, Nassau 11536, Select And Save, NY, Nassau 11542, Glen Cove, NY, Nassau 11542, Glen Cv, NY, Nassau 11545, Brookville, NY, Nassau 11545, Glen Head, NY, Nassau 11545, Muttontown, NY, Nassau 11545, Old Brookville, NY, Nassau 11545, Roslyn Harbor, NY, Nassau 11545, Upper Brookville, NY, Nassau 11547, Glenwood Landing, NY, Nassau 11548, Brookville, NY, Nassau 11548, E Hills, NY, Nassau 11548, East Hills, NY, Nassau 11548, Greenvale, NY, Nassau 11548, Merriweather Campus, NY, Nassau 11548, Old Brookville, NY, Nassau 11548, Roslyn Harbor, NY, Nassau 11550, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11550, S Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11550, South Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11551, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11552, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11552, Hempstead Gardens, NY, Nassau 11552, Lakeview, NY, Nassau 11552, West Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11553, E Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11553, East Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11553, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11553, Uniondale, NY, Nassau 11554, E Meadow, NY, Nassau 11554, East Meadow, NY, Nassau 11554, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11555, European American Bank, NY, Nassau 11555, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11555, Uniondale, NY, Nassau 11556, Eab Plaza, NY, Nassau 11556, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11556, Uniondale, NY, Nassau 11557, Grant Park, NY, Nassau 11557, Hewlett, NY, Nassau 11557, Hewlett Bay, NY, Nassau 11557, Hewlett Bay Park, NY, Nassau 11557, Hewlett Harbor, NY, Nassau 11558, Barnum Island, NY, Nassau 11558, Bay Haven, NY, Nassau 11558, Harbor Island, NY, Nassau 11558, Harbor Isle, NY, Nassau 11558, Hog Island Marsh, NY, Nassau 11558, Island Park, NY, Nassau 11558, New Fill, NY, Nassau 11558, North Long Beach, NY, Nassau 11558, Schmuck Estates, NY, Nassau 11558, Wreck Lead, NY, Nassau 11559, Harbor View, NY, Nassau 11559, Isle Of Wight, NY, Nassau 11559, Lawrence, NY, Nassau 11559, Meadowmere Park, NY, Nassau 11559, N Lawrence, NY, Nassau 11559, North Lawrence, NY, Nassau 11559, Sutton Park, NY, Nassau 11560, Buckram, NY, Nassau 11560, Lattingtown, NY, Nassau 11560, Locust Valley, NY, Nassau 11560, Matinecock, NY, Nassau 11561, E Atlantic Beach, NY, Nassau 11561, East Atlantic Beach, NY, Nassau 11561, Lido Bch, NY, Nassau 11561, Lido Beach, NY, Nassau 11561, Long Bch, NY, Nassau 11561, Long Beach, NY, Nassau 11563, Lynbrook, NY, Nassau 11564, Jamaica Svng Bank, NY, Nassau 11564, Lynbrook, NY, Nassau 11565, Malverne, NY, Nassau 11566, Merrick, NY, Nassau 11566, N Merrick, NY, Nassau 11566, North Merrick, NY, Nassau 11568, Old Westbury, NY, Nassau 11568, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11568, Wheatley, NY, Nassau 11569, Point Lookout, NY, Nassau 11569, Pt Lookout, NY, Nassau 11570, Lakeview, NY, Nassau 11570, Rockville Center, NY, Nassau 11570, Rockville Centre, NY, Nassau 11571, Rockville Center, NY, Nassau 11571, Rockville Centre, NY, Nassau 11572, Oceanside, NY, Nassau 11572, Rockville Center, NY, Nassau 11572, Rockville Centre, NY, Nassau 11575, Roosevelt, NY, Nassau 11576, E Hills, NY, Nassau 11576, East Hills, NY, Nassau 11576, Flowerhill, NY, Nassau 11576, N Hills, NY, Nassau 11576, North Hills, NY, Nassau 11576, Northhill, NY, Nassau 11576, Roslyn, NY, Nassau 11576, Roslyn Estates, NY, Nassau 11576, Roslyn Harbor, NY, Nassau 11576, Searingtown, NY, Nassau 11577, E Hills, NY, Nassau 11577, East Hills, NY, Nassau 11577, Roslyn Heights, NY, Nassau 11579, Sea Cliff, NY, Nassau 11580, Alden Terrace, NY, Nassau 11580, N Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11580, North Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11580, Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11580, Valley Strm, NY, Nassau 11581, Gibson, NY, Nassau 11581, Green Acres, NY, Nassau 11581, North Woodmere, NY, Nassau 11581, Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11582, Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11582, Valley Strm, NY, Nassau 11583, Dime Savings Bank, NY, Nassau 11583, Valley Stream, NY, Nassau 11588, First Card Services, NY, Nassau 11588, Hempstead, NY, Nassau 11588, Uniondale, NY, Nassau 11590, New Cassel, NY, Nassau 11590, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11592, National Profit, NY, Nassau 11592, Rockville Centre, NY, Nassau 11593, Dept Of Motor Vehicles, NY, Nassau 11593, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11594, 115 Brm Firms, NY, Nassau 11594, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11595, Cheeselovers, NY, Nassau 11595, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11596, E Williston, NY, Nassau 11596, East Williston, NY, Nassau 11596, Williston Park, NY, Nassau 11597, 115 Crm Firms, NY, Nassau 11597, Westbury, NY, Nassau 11598, Hewlett Neck, NY, Nassau 11598, Woodmere, NY, Nassau 11598, Woodsburgh, NY, Nassau 11599, Garden City, NY, Nassau 11600, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11690, Edgemere, NY, Queens 11690, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11690, Wave Crest, NY, Queens 11691, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11692, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11693, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11694, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11694, Neponsit, NY, Queens 11695, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11696, Far Rockaway, NY, Nassau 11696, Inwood, NY, Nassau 11697, Breezy Point, NY, Queens 11697, Far Rockaway, NY, Queens 11701, Amity Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11701, Amityville, NY, Suffolk 11701, Bristol, NY, Suffolk 11701, Broadlawn Manor, NY, Suffolk 11701, Maywood, NY, Suffolk 11701, N Amityville, NY, Suffolk 11701, North Amityville, NY, Suffolk 11701, Roneck Park, NY, Suffolk 11702, Argyle Park, NY, Suffolk 11702, Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11702, Captree Island, NY, Suffolk 11702, Concord Village, NY, Suffolk 11702, Dalton Point, NY, Suffolk 11702, Frederick Shores, NY, Suffolk 11702, Gilgo Beach, NY, Suffolk 11702, Great S Bay, NY, Suffolk 11702, Great South Bay, NY, Suffolk 11702, Greenwood Village, NY, Suffolk 11702, Oak Bch, NY, Suffolk 11702, Oak Beach, NY, Suffolk 11702, Oak Island, NY, Suffolk 11702, Oak Island Beach, NY, Suffolk 11702, W Gilgo Beach, NY, Suffolk 11702, West Gilgo Beach, NY, Suffolk 11703, Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11703, N Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11703, North Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11704, Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11704, Santapogue, NY, Suffolk 11704, W Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11704, West Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11705, Bayport, NY, Suffolk 11706, Atlantique, NY, Suffolk 11706, Bay Shore, NY, Suffolk 11706, Bayshore, NY, Suffolk 11706, Dunewood, NY, Suffolk 11706, Fair Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11706, Fire Island, NY, Suffolk 11706, Kismet, NY, Suffolk 11706, Lonelyville, NY, Suffolk 11706, N Bay Shore, NY, Suffolk 11706, N Bayshore, NY, Suffolk 11706, North Bay Shore, NY, Suffolk 11706, North Bayshore, NY, Suffolk 11706, Ocean Bay Park, NY, Suffolk 11706, Oconee, NY, Suffolk 11706, Penataquit, NY, Suffolk 11706, Point O Woods, NY, Suffolk 11706, Sagtikos Manor, NY, Suffolk 11706, Saltaire, NY, Suffolk 11706, Saxon Park, NY, Suffolk 11706, Seaview, NY, Suffolk 11706, W Bayshore, NY, Suffolk 11706, West Bay Shore, NY, Suffolk 11706, West Bayshore, NY, Suffolk 11707, Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11707, Santapogue, NY, Suffolk 11707, West Babylon, NY, Suffolk 11709, Bayville, NY, Nassau 11709, Twin Hollow, NY, Nassau 11710, Bellmore, NY, Nassau 11710, High Hill Beach, NY, Nassau 11710, North Bellmore, NY, Nassau 11713, Bellport, NY, Suffolk 11713, Hagerman, NY, Suffolk 11713, N Bellport, NY, Suffolk 11713, North Bellport, NY, Suffolk 11714, Bethpage, NY, Nassau 11714, Central Park, NY, Nassau 11714, Jerusalem, NY, Nassau 11715, Blue Point, NY, Suffolk 11715, Blue Pt, NY, Suffolk 11716, Bohemia, NY, Suffolk 11716, Connoquot, NY, Suffolk 11717, Brentwood, NY, Suffolk 11717, E Brentwood, NY, Suffolk 11717, East Brentwood, NY, Suffolk 11717, Edgewood, NY, Suffolk 11717, Pine Air, NY, Suffolk 11717, Pine Aire, NY, Suffolk 11717, West Brentwood, NY, Suffolk 11718, Brightwaters, NY, Suffolk 11719, Brookhaven, NY, Suffolk 11719, Fire Place Neck, NY, Suffolk 11719, S Haven, NY, Suffolk 11719, South Haven, NY, Suffolk 11720, Centereach, NY, Suffolk 11720, S Setauket, NY, Suffolk 11720, South Setauket, NY, Suffolk 11721, Bella Vista, NY, Suffolk 11721, Centerport, NY, Suffolk 11721, Denton Hills, NY, Suffolk 11721, Huntington Beach, NY, Suffolk 11721, James Hill, NY, Suffolk 11721, Shorewood, NY, Suffolk 11722, Cen Islip, NY, Suffolk 11722, Central Islip, NY, Suffolk 11722, Islandia, NY, Suffolk 11722, N Great River, NY, Suffolk 11722, North Great River, NY, Suffolk 11722, S Hauppauge, NY, Suffolk 11722, South Hauppauge, NY, Suffolk 11724, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11724, Cold Spring Hbr, NY, Suffolk 11724, Laurel Hollow, NY, Suffolk 11725, Commack, NY, Suffolk 11725, Hamlet, NY, Suffolk 11725, Merrick Woods, NY, Suffolk 11726, Copiague, NY, Suffolk 11726, Deanville Gardens, NY, Suffolk 11726, Marconiville, NY, Suffolk 11727, Brawer Hill, NY, Suffolk 11727, Coram, NY, Suffolk 11729, Deer Park, NY, Suffolk 11729, Half Hollow, NY, Suffolk 11730, Conlei Park, NY, Suffolk 11730, Connetquot, NY, Suffolk 11730, E Islip, NY, Suffolk 11730, East Islip, NY, Suffolk 11730, Oakhaven, NY, Suffolk 11731, Belle Crest, NY, Suffolk 11731, East Northport, NY, Suffolk 11731, Elwood, NY, Suffolk 11731, Elwood Farms, NY, Suffolk 11731, Little Plains, NY, Suffolk 11731, Madison Park, NY, Suffolk 11731, Vernon Valley, NY, Suffolk 11732, E Norwich, NY, Nassau 11732, East Norwich, NY, Nassau 11732, Muttontown, NY, Nassau 11733, E Setauket, NY, Suffolk 11733, East Setauket, NY, Suffolk 11733, Heatherwood North, NY, Suffolk 11733, Old Field, NY, Suffolk 11733, Old Field Point, NY, Suffolk 11733, Poquott, NY, Suffolk 11733, Setauket, NY, Suffolk 11733, Strongs Neck, NY, Suffolk 11735, E Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11735, East Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11735, Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11735, South Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11736, Creative Mailing Service, NY, Nassau 11736, Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11737, Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11737, Fulfillment Associates, NY, Nassau 11738, Farmingville, NY, Suffolk 11739, Great River, NY, Suffolk 11739, Timber Point, NY, Suffolk 11740, Cedarcroft, NY, Suffolk 11740, Greenlawn, NY, Suffolk 11740, Harborfields, NY, Suffolk 11741, Holbrook, NY, Suffolk 11741, S Holbrook, NY, Suffolk 11741, Sachem, NY, Suffolk 11741, South Holbrook, NY, Suffolk 11742, Holtsville, NY, Suffolk 11743, Bay Hills, NY, Suffolk 11743, Baycrest, NY, Suffolk 11743, Cold Spring Hills, NY, Suffolk 11743, Cold Spring Terrace, NY, Suffolk 11743, E Neck, NY, Suffolk 11743, East Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11743, East Neck, NY, Suffolk 11743, Fort Hill, NY, Suffolk 11743, Halesite, NY, Suffolk 11743, Harbor Heights, NY, Suffolk 11743, Harbor Heights Park, NY, Suffolk 11743, Harbor Village, NY, Suffolk 11743, Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11743, Huntington Bay, NY, Suffolk 11743, Huntington Beach, NY, Suffolk 11743, Idlewold, NY, Suffolk 11743, Knollwood Beach, NY, Suffolk 11743, Lloyd Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11743, Lloyds Neck, NY, Suffolk 11743, Pinelawn, NY, Suffolk 11743, Ridgefields Highlands, NY, Suffolk 11743, W Hills, NY, Suffolk 11743, W Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11743, West Hills, NY, Suffolk 11743, West Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11743, West Neck, NY, Suffolk 11743, Wincoma, NY, Suffolk 11745, Ghost Writers, NY, Suffolk 11745, Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11746, Bergen Park, NY, Suffolk 11746, Dix Hills, NY, Suffolk 11746, East Half Hollow Hills, NY, Suffolk 11746, Half Hollow Hills, NY, Suffolk 11746, Hunt Sta, NY, Suffolk 11746, Hunt Station, NY, Suffolk 11746, Huntington Sta, NY, Suffolk 11746, Huntington Station, NY, Suffolk 11746, S Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11746, South Huntington, NY, Suffolk 11746, Winston Park, NY, Suffolk 11747, Huntington Station, NY, Suffolk 11747, Melville, NY, Suffolk 11749, Allstate Ins Co, NY, Suffolk 11749, Farmingville, NY, Suffolk 11750, Abmps, NY, Suffolk 11750, Huntington Sta, NY, Suffolk 11750, Huntington Station, NY, Suffolk 11750, Melville, NY, Suffolk 11751, Bayberry Point, NY, Suffolk 11751, Islip, NY, Suffolk 11751, Islip Manor, NY, Suffolk 11751, Snug Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11751, Wells Park, NY, Suffolk 11752, Islip Terrace, NY, Suffolk 11753, Green Pastures, NY, Nassau 11753, Jericho, NY, Nassau 11753, Muttontown, NY, Nassau 11754, Kings Park, NY, Suffolk 11754, San Remo, NY, Suffolk 11755, Flowerfield Estates, NY, Suffolk 11755, Lake Grove, NY, Suffolk 11755, Lk Grove, NY, Suffolk 11755, Smithaven, NY, Suffolk 11756, Island Terrace, NY, Nassau 11756, Island Trees, NY, Nassau 11756, Levittown, NY, Nassau 11756, Plainedge, NY, Nassau 11757, American Venice, NY, Suffolk 11757, Fara Park, NY, Suffolk 11757, Heer Park, NY, Suffolk 11757, Lindenhurst, NY, Suffolk 11757, N Lindenhurst, NY, Suffolk 11757, North Lindenhurst, NY, Suffolk 11757, Venetian Shores, NY, Suffolk 11758, Arlyn Oaks, NY, Nassau 11758, Biltmore Shores, NY, Nassau 11758, E Massapequa, NY, Nassau 11758, East Massapequa, NY, Nassau 11758, Harbor Green, NY, Nassau 11758, Island Green, NY, Nassau 11758, Massapequa, NY, Nassau 11758, Nassau Shores, NY, Nassau 11758, North Massapequa, NY, Nassau 11758, S Plainedge, NY, Nassau 11758, South Plainedge, NY, Nassau 11758, W Amityville, NY, Nassau 11758, West Amityville, NY, Nassau 11760, Hauppauge, NY, Suffolk 11762, Bar Harbor, NY, Nassau 11762, Crown Village, NY, Nassau 11762, Mass Park, NY, Nassau 11762, Massapequa Park, NY, Nassau 11763, Gordon Heights, NY, Suffolk 11763, Medford, NY, Suffolk 11763, W Yaphank, NY, Suffolk 11763, West Yaphank, NY, Suffolk 11764, Miller Pl, NY, Suffolk 11764, Miller Place, NY, Suffolk 11764, Scotts Beach, NY, Suffolk 11765, Mill Neck, NY, Nassau 11766, Crystal Brook, NY, Suffolk 11766, Maryhill, NY, Suffolk 11766, Mount Sinai, NY, Suffolk 11766, Mt Sinai, NY, Suffolk 11766, Pipe Stave Hollow, NY, Suffolk 11767, Nesconset, NY, Suffolk 11768, Asharoken, NY, Suffolk 11768, Crab Meadow Beach, NY, Suffolk 11768, Ducks Island, NY, Suffolk 11768, E Tiana, NY, Suffolk 11768, East Tiana, NY, Suffolk 11768, Eatons Neck, NY, Suffolk 11768, Fort Salonga, NY, Suffolk 11768, Northport, NY, Suffolk 11768, Sunken Meadow, NY, Suffolk 11768, Waterside Park, NY, Suffolk 11769, Idle Hour, NY, Suffolk 11769, Oakdale, NY, Suffolk 11770, Ocean Bch, NY, Suffolk 11770, Ocean Beach, NY, Suffolk 11770, Robbins Rest, NY, Suffolk 11770, Seaview, NY, Suffolk 11771, Cove Neck, NY, Nassau 11771, Flowerfield Farm, NY, Nassau 11771, Muttontown, NY, Nassau 11771, Oyster Bay, NY, Nassau 11771, Oyster Bay Cove, NY, Nassau 11771, Timber Ridge, NY, Nassau 11771, Upper Brookville, NY, Nassau 11772, Canaan Lake, NY, Suffolk 11772, Davis Park, NY, Suffolk 11772, East Patchogue, NY, Suffolk 11772, Hagerman, NY, Suffolk 11772, N Patchogue, NY, Suffolk 11772, North Patchogue, NY, Suffolk 11772, Patchogue, NY, Suffolk 11772, Patchogue Highlands, NY, Suffolk 11772, Swan Lake Park, NY, Suffolk 11772, Water Island, NY, Suffolk 11773, Publishers Clearing House, NY, Nassau 11773, Syosset, NY, Nassau 11774, Farmingdale, NY, Nassau 11774, Fulfillment, NY, Nassau 11775, Don Jagoda Assc Inc, NY, Suffolk 11775, Melville, NY, Suffolk 11776, Echo, NY, Suffolk 11776, Port Jeff Sta, NY, Suffolk 11776, Port Jefferson Sta, NY, Suffolk 11776, Port Jefferson Station, NY, Suffolk 11776, Prt Jefferson Sta, NY, Suffolk 11776, Prt Jefferson Station, NY, Suffolk 11776, Terryville, NY, Suffolk 11777, Belle Terre, NY, Suffolk 11777, Harbor Hills, NY, Suffolk 11777, Port Jeff, NY, Suffolk 11777, Port Jefferson, NY, Suffolk 11777, Port Jefferson Station, NY, Suffolk 11777, Suassa Park, NY, Suffolk 11778, Culress Beach, NY, Suffolk 11778, North Shore Beach, NY, Suffolk 11778, Rocky Point, NY, Suffolk 11778, Rocky Pt, NY, Suffolk 11779, East Lake Ronkonkoma, NY, Suffolk 11779, Islandia, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lake Hills, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lake Ronk, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lake Ronkonkoma, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lake Ronkonkoma Heights, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lakeland, NY, Suffolk 11779, Lk Ronk, NY, Suffolk 11779, Ronkonkoma, NY, Suffolk 11779, Ronkonkoma West, NY, Suffolk 11779, Sachem, NY, Suffolk 11779, W Ronkonkoma, NY, Suffolk 11779, West Ronkonkoma, NY, Suffolk 11780, Box Hill, NY, Suffolk 11780, Deer Wells, NY, Suffolk 11780, Flowerfield, NY, Suffolk 11780, Head Of The Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11780, Laurel Hollow Park, NY, Suffolk 11780, Nissequogue, NY, Suffolk 11780, Saint James, NY, Suffolk 11780, Saint James Heights, NY, Suffolk 11780, St James, NY, Suffolk 11782, Cherry Grove, NY, Suffolk 11782, Fire Island Pines, NY, Suffolk 11782, Great South Beach, NY, Suffolk 11782, Sayville, NY, Suffolk 11783, Mayfair Park, NY, Nassau 11783, North Seaford, NY, Nassau 11783, Seaford, NY, Nassau 11783, Seamans Neck, NY, Nassau 11783, Zacks Inlet, NY, Nassau 11784, Selden, NY, Suffolk 11786, Shoreham, NY, Suffolk 11787, Damsite, NY, Suffolk 11787, Hallock Acres, NY, Suffolk 11787, Head Of The River, NY, Suffolk 11787, N Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11787, North Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11787, Rapollo Park, NY, Suffolk 11787, Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11787, Smithtown Branch, NY, Suffolk 11787, Smithtown Pines, NY, Suffolk 11787, The Branch, NY, Suffolk 11787, Village Of The Branch, NY, Suffolk 11787, W Saint James, NY, Suffolk 11787, W Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11787, West Saint James, NY, Suffolk 11787, West Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11788, Hauppauge, NY, Suffolk 11788, Islandia, NY, Suffolk 11788, Smithtown, NY, Suffolk 11789, Scotts Beach, NY, Suffolk 11789, Sound Bch, NY, Suffolk 11789, Sound Beach, NY, Suffolk 11790, Old Field, NY, Suffolk 11790, Old Field S, NY, Suffolk 11790, Old Field South, NY, Suffolk 11790, S Stony Brook, NY, Suffolk 11790, South Stony Brook, NY, Suffolk 11790, Stony Brk, NY, Suffolk 11790, Stony Brook, NY, Suffolk 11791, Clearview Landing, NY, Nassau 11791, Four Winds, NY, Nassau 11791, In The Fields, NY, Nassau 11791, Landia, NY, Nassau 11791, Laurel Hollow, NY, Nassau 11791, Little Ipswich, NY, Nassau 11791, Locust Grove, NY, Nassau 11791, Mannetto Hills, NY, Nassau 11791, Muttontown, NY, Nassau 11791, Oyster Bay Cove, NY, Nassau 11791, Syosset, NY, Nassau 11792, Wading Riv, NY, Suffolk 11792, Wading River, NY, Suffolk 11792, Wildwood, NY, Suffolk 11793, Briar Park, NY, Nassau 11793, Forest City, NY, Nassau 11793, Jones Bch, NY, Nassau 11793, Jones Beach, NY, Nassau 11793, N Wantagh, NY, Nassau 11793, North Wantagh, NY, Nassau 11793, Oakfield Village, NY, Nassau 11793, Wantagh, NY, Nassau 11794, Stony Brook, NY, Suffolk 11794, Suny Stony Brook, NY, Suffolk 11795, W Islip, NY, Suffolk 11795, West Islip, NY, Suffolk 11796, W Sayville, NY, Suffolk 11796, West Sayville, NY, Suffolk 11797, Woodbury, NY, Nassau 11798, Bagatelle, NY, Suffolk 11798, Cold Springs, NY, Suffolk 11798, Colonial Springs, NY, Suffolk 11798, Corinthia Heights, NY, Suffolk 11798, W Deer Park, NY, Suffolk 11798, West Deer Park, NY, Suffolk 11798, Wheatley Heights, NY, Suffolk 11798, Wyandanch, NY, Suffolk 11801, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11802, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11803, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11803, Plainview, NY, Nassau 11804, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11804, Old Bethpage, NY, Nassau 11805, Hicksville, NY, Suffolk 11815, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11815, L I Lighting Co, NY, Nassau 11819, Chemical Bank, NY, Nassau 11819, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11853, Chemical Bank, NY, Nassau 11853, Jericho, NY, Nassau 11854, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11854, Hicksville Brm Firms, NY, Nassau 11855, Hicksville, NY, Nassau 11855, Hicksville Crm Firms, NY, Nassau 11901, Flanders, NY, Suffolk 11901, Northampton, NY, Suffolk 11901, Reeves Park, NY, Suffolk 11901, Riverhead, NY, Suffolk 11901, Roanoke, NY, Suffolk 11901, Silver Brook Colony, NY, Suffolk 11930, Amagansett, NY, Suffolk 11930, Barnes Hole, NY, Suffolk 11930, Beach Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11930, Devon, NY, Suffolk 11930, Lazy Point, NY, Suffolk 11930, Napoague, NY, Suffolk 11930, Promised Land, NY, Suffolk 11931, Aquebogue, NY, Suffolk 11932, Bridgehampton, NY, Suffolk 11932, Old Fields, NY, Suffolk 11932, Scuttlehole, NY, Suffolk 11933, Baiting Hollow, NY, Suffolk 11933, Calverton, NY, Suffolk 11933, Oak Hills, NY, Suffolk 11933, Timber Park, NY, Suffolk 11933, Woodcliff Park, NY, Suffolk 11934, Center Moriches, NY, Suffolk 11935, Cutchogue, NY, Suffolk 11935, E Cutchogue, NY, Suffolk 11935, East Cutchogue, NY, Suffolk 11935, Nassau Farms, NY, Suffolk 11935, Nassau Point, NY, Suffolk 11937, Crestwood, NY, Suffolk 11937, E Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11937, East Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11937, Eastside, NY, Suffolk 11937, Fire Place, NY, Suffolk 11937, Freetown, NY, Suffolk 11937, Gardiners Island, NY, Suffolk 11937, Hardscrapple, NY, Suffolk 11937, Maidstone Park, NY, Suffolk 11937, Pantigo, NY, Suffolk 11937, Road Behind The Lot, NY, Suffolk 11937, Springs, NY, Suffolk 11937, The Springs, NY, Suffolk 11937, Three Mile Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11939, E Marion, NY, Suffolk 11939, East Marion, NY, Suffolk 11940, E Moriches, NY, Suffolk 11940, East Moriches, NY, Suffolk 11941, Eastport, NY, Suffolk 11942, E Quogue, NY, Suffolk 11942, East Quogue, NY, Suffolk 11942, Tiana Shores, NY, Suffolk 11944, Greenport, NY, Suffolk 11944, Plum Island, NY, Suffolk 11944, Stirling, NY, Suffolk 11944, Wickman Park, NY, Suffolk 11946, Canoe Place, NY, Suffolk 11946, Hampton Bays, NY, Suffolk 11946, N Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11946, Newtown, NY, Suffolk 11946, North Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11946, Ponquogue, NY, Suffolk 11946, Rampasture, NY, Suffolk 11946, Shinnecock Hills, NY, Suffolk 11946, Squiretown, NY, Suffolk 11946, Tiana, NY, Suffolk 11946, Tiana Beach, NY, Suffolk 11946, Tiana Shores, NY, Suffolk 11946, W Tiana, NY, Suffolk 11946, West Tiana, NY, Suffolk 11947, Jamesport, NY, Suffolk 11948, Laurel, NY, Suffolk 11949, Manorville, NY, Suffolk 11949, Punxheld, NY, Suffolk 11950, Atlantic, NY, Suffolk 11950, Forge, NY, Suffolk 11950, Forge River West, NY, Suffolk 11950, Mastic, NY, Suffolk 11951, Forge River South, NY, Suffolk 11951, Mastic Bch, NY, Suffolk 11951, Mastic Beach, NY, Suffolk 11952, Cove Neck, NY, Suffolk 11952, Mattituck, NY, Suffolk 11952, Oregon, NY, Suffolk 11952, Salt Lake Village, NY, Suffolk 11952, Shore Acres, NY, Suffolk 11953, Artist Lake, NY, Suffolk 11953, Middle Is, NY, Suffolk 11953, Middle Island, NY, Suffolk 11953, Rainbow Beach, NY, Suffolk 11954, Fort Pond, NY, Suffolk 11954, Hither Hills, NY, Suffolk 11954, Hither Plains, NY, Suffolk 11954, Montauk, NY, Suffolk 11954, Montauk Beach, NY, Suffolk 11954, Star Island, NY, Suffolk 11955, Forge River East, NY, Suffolk 11955, Moriches, NY, Suffolk 11955, Smiths Point, NY, Suffolk 11956, New Suffolk, NY, Suffolk 11956, Robbins Island, NY, Suffolk 11957, Orient, NY, Suffolk 11957, Orient Point, NY, Suffolk 11958, Dunnewold, NY, Suffolk 11958, Fleets Neck, NY, Suffolk 11958, Great Hog Neck, NY, Suffolk 11958, Hernitage, NY, Suffolk 11958, Little Hog Neck, NY, Suffolk 11958, Nassau Point, NY, Suffolk 11958, Peconic, NY, Suffolk 11958, Pine Crest Dunes, NY, Suffolk 11959, Meadowcroft, NY, Suffolk 11959, Quogue, NY, Suffolk 11960, Remsenburg, NY, Suffolk 11961, Lake Panamoka, NY, Suffolk 11961, Ridge, NY, Suffolk 11962, Sagaponack, NY, Suffolk 11963, Bay Point, NY, Suffolk 11963, Head Of Neck, NY, Suffolk 11963, N Haven, NY, Suffolk 11963, N Sea, NY, Suffolk 11963, North Haven, NY, Suffolk 11963, North Sea, NY, Suffolk 11963, Novac, NY, Suffolk 11963, Pine Neck, NY, Suffolk 11963, Sag Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11964, Dering Harbor, NY, Suffolk 11964, Montclair Colony, NY, Suffolk 11964, Rams Head, NY, Suffolk 11964, Rams Island, NY, Suffolk 11964, Shelter Island, NY, Suffolk 11965, Shelter Island Heights, NY, Suffolk 11967, Shirley, NY, Suffolk 11967, Smiths Point Park, NY, Suffolk 11968, Four Acres, NY, Suffolk 11968, Gold Grounds, NY, Suffolk 11968, Hampton Park, NY, Suffolk 11968, N Sea, NY, Suffolk 11968, North Sea, NY, Suffolk 11968, Port Of Missing Men, NY, Suffolk 11968, Rose Grove, NY, Suffolk 11968, S Hampton, NY, Suffolk 11968, Sebanoc, NY, Suffolk 11968, Southampton, NY, Suffolk 11968, Towd, NY, Suffolk 11968, Wickapogue, NY, Suffolk 11969, Southampton, NY, Suffolk 11970, South Jamesport, NY, Suffolk 11971, Ashamaquogue, NY, Suffolk 11971, Bayview, NY, Suffolk 11971, Beixedon, NY, Suffolk 11971, Horton Point, NY, Suffolk 11971, Jersey Colony, NY, Suffolk 11971, Laughing Waters, NY, Suffolk 11971, Port Of Egypt, NY, Suffolk 11971, Reydon Shores, NY, Suffolk 11971, Southold, NY, Suffolk 11972, Speonk, NY, Suffolk 11973, Upton, NY, Suffolk 11975, Wainscott, NY, Suffolk 11976, Cobb, NY, Suffolk 11976, Flying Point, NY, Suffolk 11976, Hayground, NY, Suffolk 11976, Mecox, NY, Suffolk 11976, W Mecox, NY, Suffolk 11976, Water Mill, NY, Suffolk 11976, West Mecox, NY, Suffolk 11977, Westhampton, NY, Suffolk 11978, Quioque, NY, Suffolk 11978, W Hampton Beach, NY, Suffolk 11978, Westhampton Bch, NY, Suffolk 11978, Westhampton Beach, NY, Suffolk 11980, Carver Park, NY, Suffolk 11980, Sweezytown, NY, Suffolk 11980, Yaphank, NY, Suffolk 12007, Alcove, NY, Albany 12008, Alplaus, NY, Schenectady 12008, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12009, Altamont, NY, Albany 12009, Thompsons Lake, NY, Albany 12010, Amsterdam, NY, Montgomery 12010, Perth, NY, Montgomery 12010, West Charlton, NY, Montgomery 12010, West Glenville, NY, Montgomery 12015, Athens, NY, Greene 12016, Auriesville, NY, Montgomery 12016, Fultonville, NY, Montgomery 12017, Austerlitz, NY, Columbia 12018, Alps, NY, Rensselaer 12018, Averill Park, NY, Rensselaer 12018, Burden Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12018, Dunham Hollow, NY, Rensselaer 12018, East Poestenkill, NY, Rensselaer 12018, Glass Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12019, Ballston, NY, Saratoga 12019, Ballston Lake, NY, Saratoga 12019, Burnt Hills, NY, Saratoga 12019, Charlton, NY, Saratoga 12020, Ballston Center, NY, Saratoga 12020, Ballston Spa, NY, Saratoga 12020, East Line, NY, Saratoga 12020, Factory Village, NY, Saratoga 12020, Harmony Corners, NY, Saratoga 12020, Malta, NY, Saratoga 12020, Malta Ridge, NY, Saratoga 12020, Maltaville, NY, Saratoga 12020, Milton Center, NY, Saratoga 12020, Pioneer, NY, Saratoga 12020, Riley Cove, NY, Saratoga 12020, West Milton, NY, Saratoga 12022, Berlin, NY, Rensselaer 12022, Center Berlin, NY, Rensselaer 12023, Berne, NY, Albany 12023, South Berne, NY, Albany 12023, West Berne, NY, Albany 12024, Brainard, NY, Rensselaer 12025, Broadalbin, NY, Fulton 12025, Fish House, NY, Fulton 12025, Galway Lake, NY, Fulton 12025, Honeywell Corners, NY, Fulton 12025, North Broadalbin, NY, Fulton 12025, Stevers Mills, NY, Fulton 12025, Union Mills, NY, Fulton 12025, Vail Mills, NY, Fulton 12026, Brookview, NY, Rensselaer 12027, Burnt Hills, NY, Saratoga 12028, Buskirk, NY, Rensselaer 12029, Canaan, NY, Columbia 12031, Carlisle, NY, Schoharie 12032, Canada Lake, NY, Fulton 12032, Caroga, NY, Fulton 12032, Caroga Lake, NY, Fulton 12032, Pine Lake, NY, Fulton 12032, Wheelerville, NY, Fulton 12033, Castleton On Hudson, NY, Rensselaer 12035, Central Bridge, NY, Schoharie 12036, Charlotteville, NY, Schoharie 12037, Chatham, NY, Columbia 12040, Cherry Plain, NY, Rensselaer 12040, Cherryplain, NY, Rensselaer 12041, Clarksville, NY, Albany 12042, Climax, NY, Greene 12043, Cobleskill, NY, Schoharie 12043, Dorloo, NY, Schoharie 12043, Hyndsville, NY, Schoharie 12043, Janesville, NY, Schoharie 12043, Mineral Springs, NY, Schoharie 12043, Seward, NY, Schoharie 12045, Coeymans, NY, Albany 12046, Coeymans Hollow, NY, Albany 12047, Boght Corners, NY, Albany 12047, Cohoes, NY, Albany 12047, Dunsbach Ferry, NY, Albany 12050, Columbiaville, NY, Columbia 12051, Coxsackie, NY, Greene 12052, Cropseyville, NY, Rensselaer 12053, Braman Corners, NY, Schenectady 12053, Delanson, NY, Schenectady 12054, Bethlehem, NY, Albany 12054, Delmar, NY, Albany 12054, Elsmere, NY, Albany 12055, Dormansville, NY, Albany 12055, Westerlo, NY, Albany 12056, Duanesburg, NY, Schenectady 12056, Princetown, NY, Schenectady 12057, Eagle Bridge, NY, Washington 12057, White Creek, NY, Washington 12058, Earlton, NY, Greene 12059, East Berne, NY, Albany 12060, East Chatham, NY, Columbia 12060, Red Rock, NY, Columbia 12061, East Greenbush, NY, Rensselaer 12062, East Nassau, NY, Rensselaer 12062, Hoag Corners, NY, Rensselaer 12063, East Schodack, NY, Rensselaer 12064, East Worcester, NY, Otsego 12065, Clifton Park, NY, Saratoga 12065, Clifton Park Center, NY, Saratoga 12065, Elnora, NY, Saratoga 12065, Jonesville, NY, Saratoga 12066, Burtonsville, NY, Montgomery 12066, Esperance, NY, Montgomery 12067, Feura Bush, NY, Albany 12068, Fonda, NY, Montgomery 12068, Sammonsville, NY, Montgomery 12069, Fort Hunter, NY, Montgomery 12070, Fort Johnson, NY, Montgomery 12071, Fultonham, NY, Schoharie 12072, Fultonville, NY, Montgomery 12073, Gallupville, NY, Schoharie 12074, Galway, NY, Saratoga 12074, Hagedorns Mills, NY, Saratoga 12074, Mosherville, NY, Saratoga 12075, Ghent, NY, Columbia 12076, Gilboa, NY, Schoharie 12077, Bethlehem Center, NY, Albany 12077, Glenmont, NY, Albany 12078, Bleecker, NY, Fulton 12078, Gloversville, NY, Fulton 12078, Meco, NY, Fulton 12078, Riceville, NY, Fulton 12078, West Bush, NY, Fulton 12082, Grafton, NY, Rensselaer 12083, Greenville, NY, Greene 12084, Guilderland, NY, Albany 12085, Guilderland Center, NY, Albany 12085, Guilderland Ctr, NY, Albany 12086, Hagaman, NY, Montgomery 12087, Hannacroix, NY, Greene 12089, Hoosick, NY, Rensselaer 12090, Boyntonville, NY, Rensselaer 12090, Hoosick Falls, NY, Rensselaer 12090, Walloomsac, NY, Rensselaer 12092, Barnerville, NY, Schoharie 12092, Bramanville, NY, Schoharie 12092, Howes Cave, NY, Schoharie 12093, East Jefferson, NY, Schoharie 12093, Jefferson, NY, Schoharie 12093, North Harpersfield, NY, Schoharie 12094, Johnsonville, NY, Rensselaer 12095, Garoga, NY, Fulton 12095, Johnstown, NY, Fulton 12095, Northbush, NY, Fulton 12095, Rockwood, NY, Fulton 12106, Kinderhook, NY, Columbia 12107, Knox, NY, Albany 12108, Higgins Bay, NY, Hamilton 12108, Lake Pleasant, NY, Hamilton 12110, Latham, NY, Albany 12110, Verdoy, NY, Albany 12110, West Latham, NY, Albany 12111, Latham, NY, Albany 12111, T I P C O Corp, NY, Albany 12113, Lawyersville, NY, Schoharie 12114, Lebanon Spgs, NY, Columbia 12114, Lebanon Springs, NY, Columbia 12115, Malden Brg, NY, Columbia 12115, Malden Bridge, NY, Columbia 12116, Chaseville, NY, Otsego 12116, Cooperstown Junction, NY, Otsego 12116, Maryland, NY, Otsego 12117, Mayfield, NY, Fulton 12118, Mechanicville, NY, Rensselaer 12120, Medusa, NY, Albany 12121, Melrose, NY, Rensselaer 12122, Breakabeen, NY, Schoharie 12122, Huntersland, NY, Schoharie 12122, Livingstonville, NY, Schoharie 12122, Middleburg, NY, Schoharie 12122, Middleburgh, NY, Schoharie 12123, Nassau, NY, Rensselaer 12124, New Baltimore, NY, Greene 12125, New Lebanon, NY, Columbia 12125, New Lebanon Center, NY, Columbia 12128, Latham, NY, Albany 12128, Newtonville, NY, Albany 12130, Niverville, NY, Columbia 12131, North Blenheim, NY, Schoharie 12132, North Chatham, NY, Columbia 12133, Hoosick Junction, NY, Rensselaer 12133, North Hoosick, NY, Rensselaer 12134, Batchellerville, NY, Fulton 12134, Benson, NY, Fulton 12134, Edinburg, NY, Fulton 12134, Hope, NY, Fulton 12134, Hope Falls, NY, Fulton 12134, Northville, NY, Fulton 12134, Sacandaga, NY, Fulton 12135, Norton Hill, NY, Greene 12136, Old Chatham, NY, Columbia 12137, Mariaville, NY, Schenectady 12137, Pattersonville, NY, Schenectady 12138, North Petersburg, NY, Rensselaer 12138, Petersburg, NY, Rensselaer 12138, Petersburgh, NY, Rensselaer 12138, Taconic Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12139, Arietta, NY, Hamilton 12139, Piseco, NY, Hamilton 12140, Poestenkill, NY, Rensselaer 12141, Quaker Street, NY, Schenectady 12143, Ravena, NY, Albany 12144, Defreestville, NY, Rensselaer 12144, Rensselaer, NY, Rensselaer 12147, Rensselaerville, NY, Albany 12148, Rexford, NY, Saratoga 12148, Vischer Ferry, NY, Saratoga 12149, Richmondville, NY, Schoharie 12149, West Richmondville, NY, Schoharie 12150, Rotterdam Junction, NY, Schenectady 12151, Round Lake, NY, Saratoga 12151, Ushers, NY, Saratoga 12153, Sand Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12153, Taborton, NY, Rensselaer 12154, Schaghticoke, NY, Rensselaer 12155, Elk Creek, NY, Otsego 12155, Fergusonville, NY, Otsego 12155, Schenevus, NY, Otsego 12155, Simpsonville, NY, Otsego 12155, Westville, NY, Otsego 12156, Schodack Landing, NY, Rensselaer 12157, Schoharie, NY, Schoharie 12158, Beckers Corners, NY, Albany 12158, Selkirk, NY, Albany 12159, Slingerlands, NY, Albany 12160, Sloansville, NY, Schoharie 12161, South Bethlehem, NY, Albany 12162, South Schodack, NY, Rensselaer 12163, South Westerlo, NY, Albany 12164, Speculator, NY, Hamilton 12165, Spencertown, NY, Columbia 12166, Charleston Four Corners, NY, Montgomery 12166, Lykers, NY, Montgomery 12166, Root, NY, Montgomery 12166, Rural Grove, NY, Montgomery 12166, Sprakers, NY, Montgomery 12167, Stamford, NY, Delaware 12168, Stephentown, NY, Rensselaer 12168, Stephentown Center, NY, Rensselaer 12169, Stephentown, NY, Rensselaer 12170, Bemis Heights, NY, Saratoga 12170, Stillwater, NY, Saratoga 12172, Stottville, NY, Columbia 12173, Newton Hook, NY, Columbia 12173, Stuyvesant, NY, Columbia 12174, Stuyvesant Falls, NY, Columbia 12175, Summit, NY, Schoharie 12176, Surprise, NY, Greene 12177, Tribes Hill, NY, Montgomery 12179, Gardenway Manufacturing, NY, Rensselaer 12179, Troy, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Albia, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Brunswick, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Center Brunswick, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Eagle Mills, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Raymertown, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Snyders Corners, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Snyders Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Speigletown, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Sycaway, NY, Rensselaer 12180, Troy, NY, Rensselaer 12181, Troy, NY, Rensselaer 12182, Lansingburg, NY, Rensselaer 12182, Pleasantdale, NY, Rensselaer 12182, Speigletown, NY, Rensselaer 12182, Troy, NY, Rensselaer 12183, Green Island, NY, Albany 12183, Troy, NY, Albany 12184, Chatham Center, NY, Columbia 12184, Valatie, NY, Columbia 12185, Valley Falls, NY, Rensselaer 12185, West Valley Falls, NY, Rensselaer 12186, Reidsville, NY, Albany 12186, Voorheesville, NY, Albany 12187, Patria, NY, Schoharie 12187, Warnerville, NY, Schoharie 12188, Halfmoon, NY, Saratoga 12188, Waterford, NY, Saratoga 12189, Mannville, NY, Albany 12189, Maplewood, NY, Albany 12189, Watervliet, NY, Albany 12190, Gilmantown, NY, Hamilton 12190, Wells, NY, Hamilton 12192, Coxsackie, NY, Greene 12192, West Coxsackie, NY, Greene 12193, Westerlo, NY, Albany 12194, W Fulton, NY, Schoharie 12194, West Fulton, NY, Schoharie 12195, W Lebanon, NY, Columbia 12195, West Lebanon, NY, Columbia 12196, West Sand Lake, NY, Rensselaer 12197, Decatur, NY, Otsego 12197, South Worcester, NY, Otsego 12197, Worcester, NY, Otsego 12198, North Greenbush, NY, Rensselaer 12198, Wynantskill, NY, Rensselaer 12200, Albany, NY, Albany 12201, Albany, NY, Albany 12202, Albany, NY, Albany 12203, Albany, NY, Albany 12203, Mc Kownville, NY, Albany 12203, Mckownville, NY, Albany 12203, Pine, NY, Albany 12203, Westmere, NY, Albany 12204, Albany, NY, Albany 12204, Menands, NY, Albany 12205, Albany, NY, Albany 12205, Colonie, NY, Albany 12205, Colonie Center, NY, Albany 12205, Roessleville, NY, Albany 12206, Albany, NY, Albany 12207, Albany, NY, Albany 12208, Albany, NY, Albany 12209, Albany, NY, Albany 12210, Albany, NY, Albany 12211, Albany, NY, Albany 12211, Loudonville, NY, Albany 12211, Siena, NY, Albany 12212, Albany, NY, Albany 12214, Albany, NY, Albany 12214, Albany Brm, NY, Albany 12220, Albany, NY, Albany 12222, Albany, NY, Albany 12222, S U N Y, NY, Albany 12223, Albany, NY, Albany 12223, Empire State Plaza, NY, Albany 12224, Albany, NY, Albany 12225, Albany, NY, Albany 12226, Albany, NY, Albany 12226, N Y State Campus, NY, Albany 12227, Albany, NY, Albany 12228, Albany, NY, Albany 12228, N Y Dept Of Motor Vehicles, NY, Albany 12229, Albany, NY, Albany 12229, Mental Hygiene Dept, NY, Albany 12230, Albany, NY, Albany 12230, N Y Educ Dept, NY, Albany 12231, Albany, NY, Albany 12231, N Y Secretary Of State, NY, Albany 12232, Albany, NY, Albany 12232, D O T N Y, NY, Albany 12233, Albany, NY, Albany 12233, N Y Conservation Dept, NY, Albany 12234, Albany, NY, Albany 12234, State Office Bldg, NY, Albany 12235, Albany, NY, Albany 12235, N Y Agr And Mkts, NY, Albany 12236, Albany, NY, Albany 12236, Audit And Control Dept, NY, Albany 12237, Albany, NY, Albany 12237, N Y Health Dept, NY, Albany 12238, Albany, NY, Albany 12238, Ny Park And Rec Dept, NY, Albany 12239, Albany, NY, Albany 12239, N Y Civil Serv Dept, NY, Albany 12240, Albany, NY, Albany 12240, N Y Labor Div Empl, NY, Albany 12241, Albany, NY, Albany 12241, N Y Wrkmn Comp, NY, Albany 12242, Albany, NY, Albany 12242, Ny Standards And Purc, NY, Albany 12243, Albany, NY, Albany 12243, N Y Soc Serv Dept, NY, Albany 12244, Albany, NY, Albany 12244, N Y Empl Retirement, NY, Albany 12245, Albany, NY, Albany 12245, N Y Dept Commerce, NY, Albany 12246, Albany, NY, Albany 12246, S U N Y 99 Wash, NY, Albany 12247, Albany, NY, Albany 12248, Albany, NY, Albany 12248, N Y Assembly, NY, Albany 12249, Albany, NY, Albany 12249, N Y Labor Unemp Ins, NY, Albany 12250, Albany, NY, Albany 12250, N Y Tele Co, NY, Albany 12252, Albany, NY, Albany 12252, N Y State Lottery, NY, Albany 12255, Albany, NY, Albany 12255, N Y Hghr Educ Serv Corp, NY, Albany 12256, Albany, NY, Albany 12256, N Y Lottery, NY, Albany 12257, Albany, NY, Albany 12257, Ny State Ins Dept, NY, Albany 12260, Albany, NY, Albany 12261, Albany, NY, Albany 12261, Nys Tax Processing Ctr, NY, Albany 12288, Albany, NY, Albany 12288, Us Postal Service, NY, Albany 12300, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12300, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12301, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12301, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12302, East Glenville, NY, Schenectady 12302, Mayfair, NY, Schenectady 12302, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12302, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12302, Scotia, NY, Schenectady 12302, Stoodley Corners, NY, Schenectady 12303, Carman, NY, Schenectady 12303, Carmen, NY, Schenectady 12303, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12303, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12304, Brandywine, NY, Schenectady 12304, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12304, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12305, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12305, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12306, Bellevue, NY, Schenectady 12306, Lower Rotterdam, NY, Schenectady 12306, Rotterdam Square Branch, NY, Schenectady 12306, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12306, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12307, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12307, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12308, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12308, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12309, Niskayuna, NY, Schenectady 12309, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12309, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12309, Upper Union, NY, Schenectady 12325, Glenville, NY, Schenectady 12325, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12325, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12345, General Electric, NY, Schenectady 12345, Schdy, NY, Schenectady 12345, Schenectady, NY, Schenectady 12401, East Kingston, NY, Ulster 12401, Eddyville, NY, Ulster 12401, Kingston, NY, Ulster 12401, Riverside Park, NY, Ulster 12401, Rolling Meadows, NY, Ulster 12401, Saint Remy, NY, Ulster 12401, St Remy, NY, Ulster 12401, Whittier, NY, Ulster 12404, Accord, NY, Ulster 12404, Leibhardt, NY, Ulster 12404, Lyonsville, NY, Ulster 12404, Mettacahonts, NY, Ulster 12404, Whitfield, NY, Ulster 12405, Acra, NY, Greene 12405, South Durham, NY, Greene 12406, Arkville, NY, Delaware 12407, Ashland, NY, Greene 12409, Bearsville, NY, Ulster 12409, Shady, NY, Ulster 12410, Big Indian, NY, Ulster 12410, Oliverea, NY, Ulster 12411, Bloomington, NY, Ulster 12411, Creek Locks, NY, Ulster 12412, Boiceville, NY, Ulster 12413, Cairo, NY, Greene 12413, Sunside, NY, Greene 12414, Catskill, NY, Greene 12414, Kiskatom, NY, Greene 12415, Alsen, NY, Greene 12415, Cementon, NY, Greene 12415, Smiths Landg, NY, Greene 12415, Smiths Landing, NY, Greene 12416, Chichester, NY, Ulster 12417, Connelly, NY, Ulster 12418, Cornwallville, NY, Greene 12419, Cottekill, NY, Ulster 12420, Cragsmoor, NY, Ulster 12421, Denver, NY, Delaware 12422, Durham, NY, Greene 12422, West Durham, NY, Greene 12423, East Durham, NY, Greene 12424, East Jewett, NY, Greene 12424, Tannersville, NY, Greene 12427, Elka Park, NY, Greene 12427, Platt Cove, NY, Greene 12428, Ellenville, NY, Ulster 12428, Ulster Heights, NY, Ulster 12429, Esopus, NY, Ulster 12429, Mount Saint Alphonsus Semina, NY, Ulster 12430, Bedell, NY, Delaware 12430, Fleischmanns, NY, Delaware 12430, Halcott Center, NY, Delaware 12431, Freehold, NY, Greene 12432, Glasco, NY, Ulster 12433, Glenford, NY, Ulster 12434, Grand Gorge, NY, Delaware 12435, Greenfield Park, NY, Ulster 12436, Haines Falls, NY, Greene 12438, Halcottsville, NY, Delaware 12439, East Windham, NY, Greene 12439, Hensonville, NY, Greene 12440, Bruceville, NY, Ulster 12440, High Falls, NY, Ulster 12441, Highmount, NY, Ulster 12442, Hunter, NY, Greene 12442, Jewett Center, NY, Greene 12442, South Jewett, NY, Greene 12443, Hurley, NY, Ulster 12444, Jewett, NY, Greene 12446, Cherrytown, NY, Ulster 12446, Granite, NY, Ulster 12446, Kerhonkson, NY, Ulster 12448, Lake Hill, NY, Ulster 12449, Lake Katrine, NY, Ulster 12450, Lanesville, NY, Greene 12451, Leeds, NY, Greene 12452, Lexington, NY, Greene 12453, Malden On Hudson, NY, Ulster 12454, Maplecrest, NY, Greene 12455, Margaretville, NY, Delaware 12456, Mount Marion, NY, Ulster 12456, Mount Marion Park, NY, Ulster 12456, Mount Merion Park, NY, Ulster 12457, Mount Tremper, NY, Ulster 12458, Napanoch, NY, Ulster 12459, New Kingston, NY, Delaware 12460, Oak Hill, NY, Greene 12461, Krumville, NY, Ulster 12461, Olive, NY, Ulster 12461, Olivebridge, NY, Ulster 12461, Samsonville, NY, Ulster 12463, Palenville, NY, Greene 12464, Phoenicia, NY, Ulster 12465, Pine Hill, NY, Ulster 12466, Port Ewen, NY, Ulster 12468, Mosquito Point, NY, Greene 12468, Prattsville, NY, Greene 12468, Red Falls, NY, Greene 12469, Bates, NY, Albany 12469, Cooksburg, NY, Albany 12469, Potter Hollow, NY, Albany 12469, Preston Hlow, NY, Albany 12469, Preston Hollow, NY, Albany 12470, Purling, NY, Greene 12471, Rifton, NY, Ulster 12472, Rosendale, NY, Ulster 12472, Rosendale Village, NY, Ulster 12472, Williams Lake, NY, Ulster 12473, Round Top, NY, Greene 12474, Hubbell Corners, NY, Delaware 12474, Hubbell Cors, NY, Delaware 12474, Roxbury, NY, Delaware 12475, Ruby, NY, Ulster 12477, Saugerties, NY, Ulster 12477, West Saugerties, NY, Ulster 12480, Allaben, NY, Ulster 12480, Shandaken, NY, Ulster 12481, Ashokan, NY, Ulster 12481, Shokan, NY, Ulster 12482, South Cairo, NY, Greene 12483, Spring Glen, NY, Ulster 12484, Atwood, NY, Ulster 12484, Stone Ridge, NY, Ulster 12484, The Vly, NY, Ulster 12485, Tannersville, NY, Greene 12486, Tillson, NY, Ulster 12487, Ulster Park, NY, Ulster 12489, East Wawarsing, NY, Ulster 12489, Wawarsing, NY, Ulster 12490, West Camp, NY, Ulster 12491, W Hurley, NY, Ulster 12491, West Hurley, NY, Ulster 12492, Spruceton, NY, Greene 12492, West Kill, NY, Greene 12493, West Park, NY, Ulster 12494, W Shokan, NY, Ulster 12494, West Shokan, NY, Ulster 12495, Willow, NY, Ulster 12496, Brooksburg, NY, Greene 12496, Windham, NY, Greene 12498, Woodstock, NY, Ulster

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Keys and values The registry contains two basic elements: keys and values. Registry Keys are similar to folders - in addition to values, each key can contain subkeys, which may contain further subkeys, and so on. Keys are referenced with a syntax similar to Windows' path names, using backslashes to indicate levels of hierarchy. E.g. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Microsoft\Windows refers to the subkey "Windows" of the subkey "Microsoft" of the subkey "Software" of the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE key. Registry Values are name/data pairs stored within keys. Values are referenced separately from keys. Value names can contain backslashes but doing so makes them difficult to distinguish from their key paths. The Windows API functions that query and manipulate registry values take value names separately from the key path and/or handle that identifies the parent key. The terminology is somewhat misleading, as the values are similar to an associative array, where standard terminology would refer to the name part of the value as a "key". The terms are a holdout from the 16-bit registry in Windows 3, in which keys could not contain arbitrary name/data pairs, but rather contained only one unnamed value (which had to be a string). In this sense, the entire registry was like an associative array where the keys (in both the registry sense and dictionary sense) formed a hierarchy, and the values were all strings. When the 32-bit registry was created, so was the additional capability of creating multiple named values per key, and the meanings of the names were somewhat distorted.[2] There are a number of different types of values: List of Registry Value Types 0 REG_NONE No type 1 REG_SZ A string value 2 REG_EXPAND_SZ An "expandable" string value that can contain environment variables 3 REG_BINARY Binary data (any arbitrary data) 4 REG_DWORD/REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN A DWORD value, a 32-bit unsigned integer (numbers between 0 and 4,294,967,295 [232 – 1]) (little-endian) 5 REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN A DWORD value, a 32-bit unsigned integer (numbers between 0 and 4,294,967,295 [232 – 1]) (big-endian) 6 REG_LINK symbolic link (UNICODE) 7 REG_MULTI_SZ A multi-string value, which is an array of unique strings 8 REG_RESOURCE_LIST Resource list 9 REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR Resource descriptor 10 REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST Resource Requirements List 11 REG_QWORD/REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN A QWORD value, a 64-bit integer (either big- or little-endian, or unspecified) (Introduced in Windows 2000) [edit] Hives The Registry is split into a number of logical sections, or "hives"[3] (the reason the word hive was used is an in-joke).[4] Hives are generally named by their Windows API definitions, which all begin "HKEY". They are abbreviated to a three- or four-letter short name starting with "HK" (e.g. HKCU and HKLM). The HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (local machine-specific configuration data) and HKEY_CURRENT_USER (user-specific configuration data) nodes have a similar structure to each other; user applications typically look up their settings by first checking for them in "HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Vendor's name\Application's name\Version\Setting name", and if the setting is not found look instead in the same location under the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE key. However the converse may apply for administrator-enforced policy settings where HKLM may take precedence over HKCU. The Windows Logo Program has specific requirements for where different types of user data may be stored, and that the concept of least privilege be followed so that administrator-level access is not required to use an application.[Note 1][5] [edit] HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (HKCR) Abbreviated HKCR, HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT stores information about registered applications, such as file associations and OLE Object Class IDs, tying them to the applications used to handle these items. On Windows 2000 and above, HKCR is a compilation of user-based HKCU\Software\Classes and machine-based HKLM\Software\Classes. If a given value exists in both of the subkeys above, the one in HKCU\Software\Classes takes precedence.[6] The design allows for either machine- or user-specific registration of COM objects. The user-specific classes hive, unlike the HKCU hive, does not form part of a roaming user profile. [edit] HKEY_CURRENT_USER (HKCU) Abbreviated HKCU, HKEY_CURRENT_USER stores settings that are specific to the currently logged-in user.[7] The HKCU key is a link to the subkey of HKEY_USERS that corresponds to the user; the same information is reflected in both locations. On Windows-NT based systems, each user's settings are stored in their own files called NTUSER.DAT and USRCLASS.DAT inside their own Documents and Settings subfolder (or their own Users subfolder in Windows Vista). Settings in this hive follow users with a roaming profile from machine to machine. [edit] HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (HKLM) Abbreviated HKLM, HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE stores settings that are specific to the local computer.[8] On NT-based versions of Windows, HKLM contains four subkeys, SAM, SECURITY, SOFTWARE and SYSTEM, that are found within their respective files located in the %SystemRoot%\System32\config folder. A fifth subkey, HARDWARE, is volatile and is created dynamically, and as such is not stored in a file. Information about system hardware drivers and services are located under the SYSTEM subkey, while the SOFTWARE subkey contains software and Windows settings. [edit] HKEY_USERS (HKU) Abbreviated HKU, HKEY_USERS contains subkeys corresponding to the HKEY_CURRENT_USER keys for each user profile actively loaded on the machine, though user hives are usually only loaded for currently logged-in users. [edit] HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG Abbreviated HKCC, HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG contains information gathered at runtime; information stored in this key is not permanently stored on disk, but rather regenerated at the boot time. It is a link to HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Hardware Profiles\Current. [edit] HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA This key provides runtime information into performance data provided by either the NT kernel itself or other programs that provide performance data. This key is not displayed in the Registry Editor, but it is visible through the registry functions in the Windows API. [edit] HKEY_DYN_DATA This key is used only on Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me.[9] It contains information about hardware devices, including Plug and Play and network performance statistics. The information in this hive is also not stored on the hard drive. The Plug and Play information is gathered and configured at startup and is stored in memory.[10] [edit] Symbolic Links In Windows NT based systems Symbolic Links between registry keys are supported through REG_LINK value type. Registry links work similarly to file shortcuts or filesystem Symbolic links in that they can span across different hives, but only those visible in Native API namespace, that is \Registry\Machine and \Registry\User. Other hives like HKEY_DYN_DATA are only virtual objects in Win32 API and thus not linkable. Links are used in Windows rather scarcely, only by CurrentControlSet and Hardware Profiles\Current.[11] [edit] Editing [edit] Manual editing The Registry Editor in Windows Vista Windows 3.11 Registry Editor The registry can be edited manually in Microsoft Windows by running regedit.exe or regedt32.exe in the Windows directory. However, careless registry editing can cause irreversible damage. Thus, performing backups of the registry before editing it is highly recommended by Microsoft and many industry experts (such as the authors and editors of leading trade magazines). A simple implementation of the current registry tool appeared in Windows 3.x, called the "Registration Info Editor" or "Registration Editor". This was basically just a database of applications used to edit embedded OLE objects in documents. Windows 9x operating systems include REGEDIT.EXE which can be used in Windows and also in real mode MS-DOS.[12] Windows NT introduced permissions for Registry editing. Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 were distributed with both the Windows 9x REGEDIT.EXE program and Windows NT 3.x's REGEDT32.EXE program. There are several differences between the two editors on these platforms: * REGEDIT.EXE has a left-side tree view that begins at "My Computer" and lists all loaded hives. REGEDT32.EXE has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys. * REGEDIT.EXE represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32.EXE represents them as a list of strings. * REGEDIT.EXE supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32.EXE requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. * REGEDIT.EXE supports searching for key names, values, or data throughout the entire registry, whereas REGEDT32.EXE only supports searching for key names in one hive at a time. * Because REGEDIT.EXE was directly ported from Windows 95, it does not support editing permissions. (Permissions do not exist on Windows 9x). Therefore, of the two, only REGEDT32.EXE can access the full functionality of an NT registry. * REGEDIT.EXE only supports string (REG_SZ), binary (REG_BINARY), and DWORD (REG_DWORD) values. REGEDT32.EXE supports those, plus expandable string (REG_EXPAND_SZ) and multi-string (REG_MULTI_SZ). Attempting to edit unsupported key types with REGEDIT.EXE on Windows 2000 or Windows NT 4.0 will result in irreversible conversion to a supported type.[13] Windows XP was the first system to integrate these two programs into one, adopting the old REGEDIT.EXE interface and adding the REGEDT32.EXE functionality. The differences listed above are not applicable on Windows XP and newer systems; REGEDIT.EXE is the improved editor, and REGEDT32.EXE is simply a stub that invokes REGEDIT.EXE. The Registry Editor allows users to perform the following functions: * Creating, manipulating, renaming and deleting registry keys, subkeys, values and value data * Importing and exporting .REG files, exporting data in the binary hive format * Loading, manipulating and unloading registry hive format files (Windows NT-based systems only) * Setting permissions based on ACLs (Windows NT-based systems only) * Bookmarking user-selected registry keys as Favorites * Finding particular strings in key names, value names and value data * Remotely editing the registry on another networked computer It also possible to edit the registry under Linux using the opensource Offline NT Password & Registry Editor to edit the files.[14] [edit] .REG files .REG files (also known as Registration entries) are text-based human-readable files for storing portions of the registry. On Windows 2000 and later NT-based operating systems, they contain the string Windows Registry Editor Version 5.00 at the beginning and are Unicode-based. On Windows 9x and NT 4.0 systems, they contain the string REGEDIT4 and are ANSI-based. [15] Windows 9x format .REG files are compatible with Windows 2000 and later NT-based systems. The Registry Editor on Windows on these systems also supports exporting .REG files in Windows 9x/NT format. Data is stored in .REG files in the following syntax: [15] [\\] "Value Name"=: The Default Value of a key can be edited by using @ instead of "Value Name": @=: String values do not require a (see example). For example, to add the values "Value A", "Value B", "Value C", "Value D", and "Value E" to the HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft key, [HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft] "Value A"="" "Value B"=hex: "Value C"=dword: "Value D"=hex(7): "Value E"=hex(2): Data from .REG files can be added/merged with the registry by double-clicking these files or using the /s switch in the command line. .REG files can also be used to remove registry data. To remove a key (and all subkeys, values and data), the .REG file must have a minus sign ("-") before the key name. [15] For example, to remove the key (and all subkeys, values and data), [-HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\] To remove a value (and its data), the .REG file must have a minus sign ("-") after the equal sign ("=") of each value to be removed. [15] For example, to remove only the "Value A" and "Value B" values (and their data) from the key, [HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\] "Value A"=- "Value B"=- To remove only the (Default) value of the key (and its data), [HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\] @=- [edit] Command line editing The registry can be manipulated in a number of ways from the command line. The reg.exe utility tool is included in Windows XP and Windows Vista and can be downloaded separately for previous versions. Alternative locations include the Resource Kit CDs or the original Installation CD of Windows. reg.exe Operation [Parameter List] Operation [QUERY|ADD|DELETE|COPY|SAVE|LOAD|UNLOAD|RESTORE|COMPARE|EXPORT|IMPORT] Also, a .REG file can be imported from the command line with the following command: regedit.exe /s file The /s means the file will be silent merged to the Registry. If the /s parameter is omitted the user will be asked to confirm the operation. In Windows 98, Windows 95 and at least some configurations of Windows XP the /s switch also causes regedit.exe to ignore the setting in the registry that allows administrators to disable it. When using the /s switch Regedit does not return an appropriate return code if the operation fails, unlike reg.exe which does. This makes it hard to script (in a batch file), however a possible workaround is to add the following lines into the batch file: regedit.exe /s file.reg regedit.exe /e test.reg "key" if not exist test.reg goto REGERROR del test.reg The default association for .REG files in many versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 98, does require the user to confirm the merging to avoid a user mistake. Other command line options include a VBScript or JScript together with CScript, WMI or WMIC.exe and Windows PowerShell. Registry permissions can be manipulated through the command line using the SubInACL.exe tool. The permissions on the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE key can be displayed using: subinacl /keyreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE /display To set the owner of the key HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE and all of its subkeys to Administrator: subinacl /keyreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE /setowner=Administrator subinacl /subkeyreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE /setowner=Administrator To grant full access rights to the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE key to Administrator: subinacl /keyreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE /grant=Administrator=F [edit] Programs or scripts The registry can be edited through the APIs of the Advanced Windows 32 Base API Library (advapi32.dll).[16] List of Registry API functions RegCloseKey RegOpenKey RegConnectRegistry RegOpenKeyEx RegCreateKey RegQueryInfoKey RegCreateKeyEx RegQueryMultipleValues RegDeleteKey RegQueryValue RegDeleteValue RegQueryValueEx RegEnumKey RegReplaceKey RegEnumKeyEx RegRestoreKey RegEnumValue RegSaveKey RegFlushKey RegSetKeySecurity RegGetKeySecurity RegSetValue RegLoadKey RegSetValueEx RegNotifyChangeKeyValue RegUnLoadKey Many programming languages offer built-in runtime library functions or classes that enable programs to store settings in the registry (e.g. Microsoft.Win32.Registry in VB.NET and C#, or TRegistry in Delphi). COM-enabled applications like Visual Basic 6 can use the WSH WScript.Shell object. Another way is to use the Windows Resource Kit Tool, Reg.exe by executing it from code,[17] although this is considered poor programming practice. Similarly, scripting languages such as Perl (with Win32::TieRegistry ), Windows Powershell and Windows Scripting Host also enable registry editing from scripts. [edit] Locations The Registry is stored in several files; depending upon the version of Windows, there will be different files and different locations for these files, but they are all on the local machine. The user-specific HKEY_CURRENT_USER user registry hive is stored in Ntuser.dat. There is one of these per user; if a user has a roaming profile, then this file will be copied to and from a server at logout and login respectively. [edit] Windows NT-based operating systems Windows NT-based systems store the registry in a binary hive format which is the same format that can be exported, loaded and unloaded by the Registry Editor in these operating systems. The following Registry files are stored in %SystemRoot%\System32\Config\: * Sam – HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SAM * Security – HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SECURITY * Software – HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE * System – HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM * Default – HKEY_USERS\.DEFAULT * Userdiff – Not associated with a hive. Used only when upgrading operating systems.[18] The following files are stored in each user's profile folder: * %UserProfile%\Ntuser.dat – HKEY_USERS\ (linked to by HKEY_CURRENT_USER) * %UserProfile%\Local Settings\Application Data\Microsoft\Windows\Usrclass.dat (path is localized) – HKEY_USERS\_Classes (HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes) Windows 2000 keeps an alternate copy of the registry hives (.ALT) and attempts to switch to it when corruption is detected.[19] Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 do not maintain a System.alt hive because NTLDR on those versions of Windows can process the System.log file to bring up to date a System hive that has become inconsistent during a shutdown or crash. In addition, the %Windir%\Repair folder contains a copy of the system's registry hives that were created after installation and the first successful startup of Windows. [edit] Windows 95, 98, and Me The registry files are named USER.DAT and SYSTEM.DAT are stored in the %WINDIR% directory. In Windows Me, Classes.dat was added. Also, each user profile (if profiles are enabled) has its own USER.DAT in profile's directory. [edit] Windows 3.11 The registry file is Reg.dat, system.dat and is stored in the C:\WINDOWS directory. These files also contain system registry info: user.dat and is stored in the C:\windows\profiles\\user.dat directory. [edit] Backups and recovery Windows supports several methods to back up and restore the registry: * Windows NT-based operating systems automatically create a backup of each hive (.BAK) in the %Windir%\System32\config folder. Any file can be restored from the Recovery Console. * System Restore can back up the registry and restore it as long as Windows is bootable, or from the Windows Recovery Environment starting with Windows Vista. * NTBackup can back up the registry as part of the System State and restore it. * On Windows NT-based systems, the Last Known Good Configuration option in startup menu relinks the HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet key, which stores hardware and device driver information. * Windows 98 and Windows Me include command line (Scanreg.exe) and GUI (Scanregw.exe) registry checker tools to check and fix the integrity of the registry, create up to five automatic regular backups by default and restore them manually or whenever corruption is detected. The registry checker tool backs up the registry, by default, to %Windir%\Sysbckup Scanreg.exe can also run from MS-DOS. * The Windows 95 CD-ROM included an Emergency Recovery Utility (ERU.exe) and a Configuration Backup Tool (Cfgback.exe) to back up and restore the registry. Additionally Windows 95 backs up the registry to the files system.da0 and user.da0 on every successful boot. [edit] Policy [edit] Legacy systems With Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows NT, administrators can use a special file to be merged into the registry, called a policy file (POLICY.POL). The policy file allows administrators to prevent non-administrator users from changing registry settings like, for instance, the security level of Internet Explorer and the desktop background wallpaper. The policy file is primarily used in a business with a large number of computers where the business needs to be protected from rogue or careless users. The default extension for the policy file is .POL. The policy file filters the settings it enforces by user and by group (a "group" is a defined set of users). To do that the policy file merges into the registry, preventing users from circumventing it by simply changing back the settings. The policy file is usually distributed through a LAN, but can be placed on the local computer. The policy file is created by a free tool by Microsoft that goes by the filename poledit.exe for Windows 95/Windows 98 and with a computer management module for NT-based systems. The editor requires administrative permissions to be run on systems that uses permissions. The editor can also directly change the current registry settings of the local computer and if the remote registry service is installed and started on another computer it can also change the registry on that computer. The policy editor loads the settings it can change from .ADM files, of which one is included, that contains the settings the Windows shell provides. The .ADM file is plain text and supports easy localisation by allowing all the strings to be stored in one place. [edit] Group policy Windows 2000 and later versions of Windows use Group Policy to enforce Registry settings. Policy may be applied locally to a single computer using GPEdit.msc, or to multiple computers in a domain using gpmc.msc. [edit] .INI file virtualization Windows NT kernels support redirection of INI file-related APIs into a virtual file in a Registry location such as HKEY_CURRENT_USER using a feature called "InifileMapping".[20] This functionality was introduced to allow legacy applications written for 16-bit versions of Windows to be able to run under Windows NT platforms on which the System folder is no longer considered an appropriate location for user-specific data or configuration. Non-compliant 32-bit applications can also be redirected in this manner, even though the feature was originally intended for 16-bit applications. [edit] Registry virtualization Windows Vista has introduced limited Registry virtualization, whereby poorly written applications that write user data to a read-only system location (such as the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE hive) can be redirected to a more appropriate location, without changing the application itself. The operation is transparent to the application, as it does not know that its Registry operations have been directed elsewhere. Similarly, application virtualization redirects all of an application's Registry operations to a non-Registry backed location, such as a file. Used together with file virtualization, this approach allows applications to run without being installed on the location machine. Lastly, the Application Compatibility Toolkit[21] provides shims that can transparently redirect HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE or HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT Registry operations to HKEY_CURRENT_USER to address "LUA" bugs that cause applications not to work for limited users. [edit] Windows 9x operating systems On Windows 9x computers, an older installation can have a very large registry that slows down the computer's startup and can make the computer unstable. This has led to frequent criticisms that the registry leads to instability. However, as the on-disc structure of the registry is entirely different on the NT line of Operating Systems (including Windows XP and Vista) than Windows 9x series OS,[1] slowdown due to registry bloat now occurs much less frequently. [edit] Equivalents in other operating systems In contrast to the Windows registry's binary-based database model, some other operating systems use separate plain-text files for daemon and application configuration, but group these configurations together for ease of management. Under Unix-like operating systems that follow the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard, system-wide configuration files (information similar to what would appear in HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE on Windows) are traditionally stored in files in /etc/ and its subdirectories, or sometimes in /usr/local/etc. Per-user information (information that would be roughly equivalent to that in HKEY_CURRENT_USER) is stored in hidden directories and files (that start with a period) within the user's home directory. However XDG-compliant applications should refer to the environment variables defined in the Base Directory specification[22]. Applications running on Apple Inc.'s Mac OS X operating system typically store settings in property list files which are usually stored in each user's Library folder. RISC OS also allows applications to be copied into directories easily, as opposed to the separate installation program that typifies Windows applications. If one wishes to remove the application, it is possible to simply delete the folder belonging to the application.[23] This will often not remove configuration settings which are stored independently from the application, usually within the computer's !Boot structure, in !Boot.Choices, but potentially anywhere on a network fileserver. IBM AIX (a Unix variant) uses a registry component called Object Data Manager (ODM). The ODM is used to store information about system and device configuration. An extensive set of tools and utilities provides users with means of extending, checking, correcting the ODM database. The ODM stores its information in several files, default location is /etc/objrepos. The GNOME desktop environment uses a registry-like interface called GConf for storing configuration settings for the desktop and applications. However, in GConf, all application settings are stored in separate files, thereby eliminating a single point of failure. The Elektra Initiative provides an alternative back-end for text configuration files for the Linux operating system, similar to the registry. [edit] Advantages and disadvantages This article's section called "Advantages and disadvantages" needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008) The Windows centralized Registry has a number of advantages over legacy INI files:[24] * Strongly-typed data can be stored in the Registry, as opposed to only textual information in INI files. * Separation of machine configuration from user configuration. When a user logs into a Windows NT/2000/XP/Server 2003 computer, the user-based registry settings are loaded from a user-specific path rather than from a read-only system location. This allows multiple users to share the same machine, and also allows programs to work for a least-privilege user. * Group Policy allows administrators on a Windows-based computer network to centrally manage program and policy settings. Part of this involves being able to set what an entry in the registry will be for all the computers on the network, and affect nearly any installed program — something almost impossible with per-program configuration files each with custom layouts, stored in dispersed locations. * Standardization of the method of storing configuration data across diverse applications. * The registry can be accessed over a network connection for remote management/support, including from scripts, using the standard set of APIs, as long as the Remote Registry service is running and firewall rules permit this. * The entire registry can be backed up more easily as it is just a small number of files in specific locations. However, it is much harder to back up and restore configuration of a specific application. * Since accessing the registry does not require parsing, it can be read from and written to more quickly than a text file can be. However, the registry becomes a large file to process once per boot. * Portions of settings like any subset of an application configuration can be saved in a text-based .REG file, which can be edited with any text editor later. .REG files can easily be merged back into the registry both by unattended batch file or by the user just double-clicking on the file without harming any setting that is not explicitly stated in the .REG file. This is very useful for administrators and support personnel who want to pre-set or pre-configure only a few options like approving the EULA of a certain application. * The registry is constructed as a database, and offers DB-like features such as atomic updates. If two processes attempt to update the same registry value at the same time, one process's change will precede the other's, so one will only last a short time until the second gets written. With changes in a file system, such race conditions can result in interleaved data that doesn't match either attempted update. Windows Vista provides transactional updates to the registry, so the atomicity guarantees can be extended across multiple key and/or value changes, with traditional commit-abort semantics. (Note that NTFS provides such support for the file system as well, so the same guarantees could be obtained with traditional configuration files.) However, the centralized Registry introduces some problems as well: * Centralizing configurations makes it difficult to back up and recover individual applications. * The structure is complex and hard to manipulate in practice, particularly with the use of GUIDs to link entries together. * In practice, manual manipulation of the registry might be required where applications that are using the Registry do not implement configuration through their user interface. * Because the Registry structure is contained in binary files, damage to it is difficult to repair. In some cases, a damaged registry may even prevent a Windows system from booting successfully. * Any application that does not uninstall properly, or does not have an uninstaller, can leave entries in the registry. Over time the computer suffers "software rot" as the registry fills with left-over and possibly malfunctioning entries. * Installers and uninstallers become complex, much more than just copying files into a folder. * Applications that make use of the registry to store and retrieve their settings are unsuitable for use on portable devices used to carry applications from one system to another. * With a large amount of data stored in a configuration the speed of creating such a config in registry (install) becomes an issue[who?]. * Since an application's configuration is centralized away from the application itself, it is often not possible to copy installed applications that use the Registry to another computer. This means that software usually has to be reinstalled from original media on a computer upgrade or rebuild, rather than just copying the user and software folder to the new computer.

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application & app An application (often called "app" for short) is simply a program with a GUI. Note that it is different from an applet. boot Starting up an OS is booting it. If the computer is already running, it is more often called rebooting. browser A browser is a program used to browse the web. Some common browsers include Netscape, MSIE (Microsoft Internet Explorer), Safari, Lynx, Mosaic, Amaya, Arena, Chimera, Opera, Cyberdog, HotJava, etc. bug A bug is a mistake in the design of something, especially software. A really severe bug can cause something to crash. chat Chatting is like e-mail, only it is done instantaneously and can directly involve multiple people at once. While e-mail now relies on one more or less standard protocol, chatting still has a couple competing ones. Of particular note are IRC and Instant Messenger. One step beyond chatting is called MUDding. click To press a mouse button. When done twice in rapid succession, it is referred to as a double-click. cursor A point of attention on the computer screen, often marked with a flashing line or block. Text typed into the computer will usually appear at the cursor. database A database is a collection of data, typically organized to make common retrievals easy and efficient. Some common database programs include Oracle, Sybase, Postgres, Informix, Filemaker, Adabas, etc. desktop A desktop system is a computer designed to sit in one position on a desk somewhere and not move around. Most general purpose computers are desktop systems. Calling a system a desktop implies nothing about its platform. The fastest desktop system at any given time is typically either an Alpha or PowerPC based system, but the SPARC and PA-RISC based systems are also often in the running. Industrial strength desktops are typically called workstations. directory Also called "folder", a directory is a collection of files typically created for organizational purposes. Note that a directory is itself a file, so a directory can generally contain other directories. It differs in this way from a partition. disk A disk is a physical object used for storing data. It will not forget its data when it loses power. It is always used in conjunction with a disk drive. Some disks can be removed from their drives, some cannot. Generally it is possible to write new information to a disk in addition to reading data from it, but this is not always the case. drive A device for storing and/or retrieving data. Some drives (such as disk drives, zip drives, and tape drives) are typically capable of having new data written to them, but some others (like CD-ROMs or DVD-ROMs) are not. Some drives have random access (like disk drives, zip drives, CD-ROMs, and DVD-ROMs), while others only have sequential access (like tape drives). e-book The concept behind an e-book is that it should provide all the functionality of an ordinary book but in a manner that is (overall) less expensive and more environmentally friendly. The actual term e-book is somewhat confusingly used to refer to a variety of things: custom software to play e-book titles, dedicated hardware to play e-book titles, and the e-book titles themselves. Individual e-book titles can be free or commercial (but will always be less expensive than their printed counterparts) and have to be loaded into a player to be read. Players vary wildly in capability level. Basic ones allow simple reading and bookmarking; better ones include various features like hypertext, illustrations, audio, and even limited video. Other optional features allow the user to mark-up sections of text, leave notes, circle or diagram things, highlight passages, program or customize settings, and even use interactive fiction. There are many types of e-book; a couple popular ones include the Newton book and Palm DOC. e-mail E-mail is short for electronic mail. It allows for the transfer of information from one computer to another, provided that they are hooked up via some sort of network (often the Internet. E-mail works similarly to FAXing, but its contents typically get printed out on the other end only on demand, not immediately and automatically as with FAX. A machine receiving e-mail will also not reject other incoming mail messages as a busy FAX machine will; rather they will instead be queued up to be received after the current batch has been completed. E-mail is only seven-bit clean, meaning that you should not expect anything other than ASCII data to go through uncorrupted without prior conversion via something like uucode or bcode. Some mailers will do some conversion automatically, but unless you know your mailer is one of them, you may want to do the encoding manually. file A file is a unit of (usually named) information stored on a computer. firmware Sort of in-between hardware and software, firmware consists of modifiable programs embedded in hardware. Firmware updates should be treated with care since they can literally destroy the underlying hardare if done improperly. There are also cases where neglecting to apply a firmware update can destroy the underlying hardware, so user beware. floppy An extremely common type of removable disk. Floppies do not hold too much data, but most computers are capable of reading them. Note though that there are different competing format used for floppies, so that a floppy written by one type of computer might not directly work on another. Also sometimes called "diskette". format The manner in which data is stored; its organization. For example, VHS, SVHS, and Beta are three different formats of video tape. They are not 100% compatible with each other, but information can be transferred from one to the other with the proper equipment (but not always without loss; SVHS contains more information than either of the other two). Computer information can be stored in literally hundreds of different formats, and can represent text, sounds, graphics, animations, etc. Computer information can be exchanged via different computer types provided both computers can interpret the format used. function keys On a computer keyboard, the keys that start with an "F" that are usually (but not always) found on the top row. They are meant to perform user-defined tasks. graphics Anything visually displayed on a computer that is not text. hardware The physical portion of the computer. hypertext A hypertext document is like a text document with the ability to contain pointers to other regions of (possibly other) hypertext documents. Internet The Internet is the world-wide network of computers. There is only one Internet, and thus it is typically capitalized (although it is sometimes referred to as "the 'net"). It is different from an intranet. keyboard A keyboard on a computer is almost identical to a keyboard on a typewriter. Computer keyboards will typically have extra keys, however. Some of these keys (common examples include Control, Alt, and Meta) are meant to be used in conjunction with other keys just like shift on a regular typewriter. Other keys (common examples include Insert, Delete, Home, End, Help, function keys,etc.) are meant to be used independently and often perform editing tasks. Keyboards on different platforms will often look slightly different and have somewhat different collections of keys. Some keyboards even have independent shift lock and caps lock keys. Smaller keyboards with only math-related keys are typically called "keypads". language Computer programs can be written in a variety of different languages. Different languages are optimized for different tasks. Common languages include Java, C, C++, ForTran, Pascal, Lisp, and BASIC. Some people classify languages into two categories, higher-level and lower-level. These people would consider assembly language and machine language lower-level languages and all other languages higher-level. In general, higher-level languages can be either interpreted or compiled; many languages allow both, but some are restricted to one or the other. Many people do not consider machine language and assembly language at all when talking about programming languages. laptop A laptop is any computer designed to do pretty much anything a desktop system can do but run for a short time (usually two to five hours) on batteries. They are designed to be carried around but are not particularly convenient to carry around. They are significantly more expensive than desktop systems and have far worse battery life than PDAs. Calling a system a laptop implies nothing about its platform. By far the fastest laptops are the PowerPC based Macintoshes. memory Computer memory is used to temporarily store data. In reality, computer memory is only capable of remembering sequences of zeros and ones, but by utilizing the binary number system it is possible to produce arbitrary rational numbers and through clever formatting all manner of representations of pictures, sounds, and animations. The most common types of memory are RAM, ROM, and flash. MHz & megahertz One megahertz is equivalent to 1000 kilohertz, or 1,000,000 hertz. The clock speed of the main processor of many computers is measured in MHz, and is sometimes (quite misleadingly) used to represent the overall speed of a computer. In fact, a computer's speed is based upon many factors, and since MHz only reveals how many clock cycles the main processor has per second (saying nothing about how much is actually accomplished per cycle), it can really only accurately be used to gauge two computers with the same generation and family of processor plus similar configurations of memory, co-processors, and other peripheral hardware. modem A modem allows two computers to communicate over ordinary phone lines. It derives its name from modulate / demodulate, the process by which it converts digital computer data back and forth for use with an analog phone line. monitor The screen for viewing computer information is called a monitor. mouse In computer parlance a mouse can be both the physical object moved around to control a pointer on the screen, and the pointer itself. Unlike the animal, the proper plural of computer mouse is "mouses". multimedia This originally indicated a capability to work with and integrate various types of things including audio, still graphics, and especially video. Now it is more of a marketing term and has little real meaning. Historically the Amiga was the first multimedia machine. Today in addition to AmigaOS, IRIX and Solaris are popular choices for high-end multimedia work. NC The term network computer refers to any (usually desktop) computer system that is designed to work as part of a network rather than as a stand-alone machine. This saves money on hardware, software, and maintenance by taking advantage of facilities already available on the network. The term "Internet appliance" is often used interchangeably with NC. network A network (as applied to computers) typically means a group of computers working together. It can also refer to the physical wire etc. connecting the computers. notebook A notebook is a small laptop with similar price, performance, and battery life. organizer An organizer is a tiny computer used primarily to store names, addresses, phone numbers, and date book information. They usually have some ability to exchange information with desktop systems. They boast even better battery life than PDAs but are far less capable. They are extremely inexpensive but are typically incapable of running any special purpose applications and are thus of limited use. OS The operating system is the program that manages a computer's resources. Common OSes include Windows '95, MacOS, Linux, Solaris, AmigaOS, AIX, Windows NT, etc. PC The term personal computer properly refers to any desktop, laptop, or notebook computer system. Its use is inconsistent, though, and some use it to specifically refer to x86 based systems running MS-DOS, MS-Windows, GEOS, or OS/2. This latter use is similar to what is meant by a WinTel system. PDA A personal digital assistant is a small battery-powered computer intended to be carried around by the user rather than left on a desk. This means that the processor used ought to be power-efficient as well as fast, and the OS ought to be optimized for hand-held use. PDAs typically have an instant-on feature (they would be useless without it) and most are grayscale rather than color because of battery life issues. Most have a pen interface and come with a detachable stylus. None use mouses. All have some ability to exchange data with desktop systems. In terms of raw capabilities, a PDA is more capable than an organizer and less capable than a laptop (although some high-end PDAs beat out some low-end laptops). By far the most popular PDA is the Pilot, but other common types include Newtons, Psions, Zauri, Zoomers, and Windows CE hand-helds. By far the fastest current PDA is the Newton (based around a StrongARM RISC processor). Other PDAs are optimized for other tasks; few computers are as personal as PDAs and care must be taken in their purchase. Feneric's PDA / Handheld Comparison Page is perhaps the most detailed comparison of PDAs and handheld computers to be found anywhere on the web. platform Roughly speaking, a platform represents a computer's family. It is defined by both the processor type on the hardware side and the OS type on the software side. Computers belonging to different platforms cannot typically run each other's programs (unless the programs are written in a language like Java). portable If something is portable it can be easily moved from one type of computer to another. The verb "to port" indicates the moving itself. printer A printer is a piece of hardware that will print computer information onto paper. processor The processor (also called central processing unit, or CPU) is the part of the computer that actually works with the data and runs the programs. There are two main processor types in common usage today: CISC and RISC. Some computers have more than one processor and are thus called "multiprocessor". This is distinct from multitasking. Advertisers often use megahertz numbers as a means of showing a processor's speed. This is often extremely misleading; megahertz numbers are more or less meaningless when compared across different types of processors. program A program is a series of instructions for a computer, telling it what to do or how to behave. The terms "application" and "app" mean almost the same thing (albeit applications generally have GUIs). It is however different from an applet. Program is also the verb that means to create a program, and a programmer is one who programs. run Running a program is how it is made to do something. The term "execute" means the same thing. software The non-physical portion of the computer; the part that exists only as data; the programs. Another term meaning much the same is "code". spreadsheet An program used to perform various calculations. It is especially popular for financial applications. Some common spreadsheets include Lotus 123, Excel, OpenOffice Spreadsheet, Octave, Gnumeric, AppleWorks Spreadsheet, Oleo, and GeoCalc. user The operator of a computer. word processor A program designed to help with the production of textual documents, like letters and memos. Heavier duty work can be done with a desktop publisher. Some common word processors include MS-Word, OpenOffice Write, WordPerfect, AbiWord, AppleWorks Write, and GeoWrite. www The World-Wide-Web refers more or less to all the publically accessable documents on the Internet. It is used quite loosely, and sometimes indicates only HTML files and sometimes FTP and Gopher files, too. It is also sometimes just referred to as "the web". Reference 65xx The 65xx series of processors includes the 6502, 65C02, 6510, 8502, 65C816, 65C816S, etc. It is a CISC design and is not being used in too many new stand-alone computer systems, but is still being used in embedded systems, game systems (such as the Super NES), and processor enhancement add-ons for older systems. It was originally designed by MOS Technologies, but is now produced by The Western Design Center, Inc. It was the primary processor for many extremely popular systems no longer being produced, including the Commodore 64, the Commodore 128, and all the Apple ][ series machines. 68xx The 68xx series of processors includes the 6800, 6805, 6809, 68000, 68020, 68030, 68040, 68060, etc. It is a CISC design and is not being used in too many new stand-alone computer systems, but is still being used heavily in embedded systems. It was originally designed by Motorola and was the primary processor for older generations of many current machines, including Macintoshes, Amigas, Sun workstations, HP workstations, etc. and the primary processor for many systems no longer being produced, such as the TRS-80. The PowerPC was designed in part to be its replacement. a11y Commonly used to abbreviate the word "accessibility". There are eleven letters between the "a" and the "y". ADA An object-oriented language at one point popular for military and some academic software. Lately C++ and Java have been getting more attention. AI Artificial intelligence is the concept of making computers do tasks once considered to require thinking. AI makes computers play chess, recognize handwriting and speech, helps suggest prescriptions to doctors for patients based on imput symptoms, and many other tasks, both mundane and not. AIX The industrial strength OS designed by IBM to run on PowerPC and x86 based machines. It is a variant of UNIX and is meant to provide more power than OS/2. AJaX AJaX is a little like DHTML, but it adds asynchronous communication between the browser and Web site via either XML or JSON to achieve performance that often rivals desktop applications. Alpha An Alpha is a RISC processor invented by Digital and currently produced by Digital/Compaq and Samsung. A few different OSes run on Alpha based machines including Digital UNIX, Windows NT, Linux, NetBSD, and AmigaOS. Historically, at any given time, the fastest processor in the world has usually been either an Alpha or a PowerPC (with sometimes SPARCs and PA-RISCs making the list), but Compaq has recently announced that there will be no further development of this superb processor instead banking on the release of the somewhat suspect Merced. AltiVec AltiVec (also called the "Velocity Engine") is a special extension built into some PowerPC CPUs to provide better performance for certain operations, most notably graphics and sound. It is similar to MMX on the x86 CPUs. Like MMX, it requires special software for full performance benefits to be realized. Amiga A platform originally created and only produced by Commodore, but now owned by Gateway 2000 and produced by it and a few smaller companies. It was historically the first multimedia machine and gave the world of computing many innovations. It is now primarily used for audio / video applications; in fact, a decent Amiga system is less expensive than a less capable video editing system. Many music videos were created on Amigas, and a few television series and movies had their special effects generated on Amigas. Also, Amigas can be readily synchronized with video cameras, so typically when a computer screen appears on television or in a movie and it is not flickering wildly, it is probably an Amiga in disguise. Furthermore, many coin-operated arcade games are really Amigas packaged in stand-up boxes. Amigas have AmigaOS for their OS. New Amigas have either a PowerPC or an Alpha for their main processor and a 68xx processor dedicated to graphics manipulation. Older (and low end) Amigas do everything with just a 68xx processor. AmigaOS The OS used by Amigas. AmigaOS combines the functionality of an OS and a window manager and is fully multitasking. AmigaOS boasts a pretty good selection of games (many arcade games are in fact written on Amigas) but has limited driver support. AmigaOS will run on 68xx, Alpha, and PowerPC based machines. Apple ][ The Apple ][ computer sold millions of units and is generally considered to have been the first home computer with a 1977 release date. It is based on the 65xx family of processors. The earlier Apple I was only available as a build-it-yourself kit. AppleScript A scripting language for Mac OS computers. applet An applet differs from an application in that is not meant to be run stand-alone but rather with the assistance of another program, usually a browser. AppleTalk AppleTalk is a protocol for computer networks. It is arguably inferior to TCP/IP. Aqua The default window manager for Mac OS X. Archie Archie is a system for searching through FTP archives for particular files. It tends not to be used too much anymore as more general modern search engines are significantly more capable. ARM An ARM is a RISC processor invented by Advanced RISC Machines, currently owned by Intel, and currently produced by both the above and Digital/Compaq. ARMs are different from most other processors in that they were not designed to maximize speed but rather to maximize speed per power consumed. Thus ARMs find most of their use on hand-held machines and PDAs. A few different OSes run on ARM based machines including Newton OS, JavaOS, and (soon) Windows CE and Linux. The StrongARM is a more recent design of the original ARM, and it is both faster and more power efficient than the original. ASCII The ASCII character set is the most popular one in common use. People will often refer to a bare text file without complicated embedded format instructions as an ASCII file, and such files can usually be transferred from one computer system to another with relative ease. Unfortunately there are a few minor variations of it that pop up here and there, and if you receive a text file that seems subtly messed up with punctuation marks altered or upper and lower case reversed, you are probably encountering one of the ASCII variants. It is usually fairly straightforward to translate from one ASCII variant to another, though. The ASCII character set is seven bit while pure binary is usually eight bit, so transferring a binary file through ASCII channels will result in corruption and loss of data. Note also that the ASCII character set is a subset of the Unicode character set. ASK A protocol for an infrared communications port on a device. It predates the IrDA compliant infrared communications protocol and is not compatible with it. Many devices with infrared communications support both, but some only support one or the other. assembly language Assembly language is essentially machine language that has had some of the numbers replaced by somewhat easier to remember mnemonics in an attempt to make it more human-readable. The program that converts assembly language to machine language is called an assembler. While assembly language predates FORTRAN, it is not typically what people think of when they discuss computer languages. Atom Atom is an intended replacement for RSS and like it is used for syndicating a web site's content. It is currently not nearly as popular or well-supported by software applications, however. authoring system Any GUIs method of designing new software can be called an authoring system. Any computer language name with the word "visual" in front of it is probably a version of that language built with some authoring system capabilities. It appears that the first serious effort to produce a commercial quality authoring system took place in the mid eighties for the Amiga. AWK AWK is an interpreted language developed in 1977 by Aho, Weinberger, & Kernighan. It gets its name from its creators' initials. It is not particularly fast, but it was designed for creating small throwaway programs rather than full-blown applications -- it is designed to make the writing of the program fast, not the program itself. It is quite portable with versions existing for numerous platforms, including a free GNU version. Plus, virtually every version of UNIX in the world comes with AWK built-in. BASIC The Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code is a computer language developed by Kemeny & Kurtz in 1964. Although it is traditionally interpreted, compilers exist for many platforms. While the interpreted form is typically fairly slow, the compiled form is often quite fast, usually faster than Pascal. The biggest problem with BASIC is portability; versions for different machines are often completely unlike each other; Amiga BASIC at first glance looks more like Pascal, for example. Portability problems actually go beyond even the cross platform level; in fact, most machines have multiple versions of incompatible BASICs available for use. The most popular version of BASIC today is called Visual BASIC. Like all BASICs it has portability issues, but it has some of the advantages of an authoring system so it is relatively easy to use. baud A measure of communications speed, used typically for modems indicating how many bits per second can be transmitted. BBS A bulletin board system is a computer that can be directly connected to via modem and provides various services like e-mail, chatting, newsgroups, and file downloading. BBSs have waned in popularity as more and more people are instead connecting to the Internet, but they are still used for product support and local area access. Most current BBSs provide some sort of gateway connection to the Internet. bcode Identical in intent to uucode, bcode is slightly more efficient and more portable across different computer types. It is the preferred method used by MIME. BeOS A lightweight OS available for both PowerPC and x86 based machines. It is often referred to simply as "Be". beta A beta version of something is not yet ready for prime time but still possibly useful to related developers and other interested parties. Expect beta software to crash more than properly released software does. Traditionally beta versions (of commercial software) are distributed only to selected testers who are often then given a discount on the proper version after its release in exchange for their testing work. Beta versions of non-commercial software are more often freely available to anyone who has an interest. binary There are two meanings for binary in common computer usage. The first is the name of the number system in which there are only zeros and ones. This is important to computers because all computer data is ultimately a series of zeros and ones, and thus can be represented by binary numbers. The second is an offshoot of the first; data that is not meant to be intepreted through a common character set (like ASCII) is typically referred to as binary data. Pure binary data is typically eight bit data, and transferring a binary file through ASCII channels without prior modification will result in corruption and loss of data. Binary data can be turned into ASCII data via uucoding or bcoding. bit A bit can either be on or off; one or zero. All computer data can ultimately be reduced to a series of bits. The term is also used as a (very rough) measure of sound quality, color quality, and even procesor capability by considering the fact that series of bits can represent binary numbers. For example (without getting too technical), an eight bit image can contain at most 256 distinct colors while a sixteen bit image can contain at most 65,536 distinct colors. bitmap A bitmap is a simplistic representation of an image on a computer, simply indicating whether or not pixels are on or off, and sometimes indicating their color. Often fonts are represented as bitmaps. The term "pixmap" is sometimes used similarly; typically when a distinction is made, pixmap refers to color images and bitmap refers to monochrome images. blog Short for web log, a blog (or weblog, or less commonly, 'blog) is a web site containing periodic (usually frequent) posts. Blogs are usually syndicated via either some type of RSS or Atom and often supports TrackBacks. It is not uncommon for blogs to function much like newspaper columns. A blogger is someone who writes for and maintains a blog. boolean Boolean algebra is the mathematics of base two numbers. Since base two numbers have only two values, zero and one, there is a good analogy between base two numbers and the logical values "true" & "false". In common usage, booleans are therefore considered to be simple logical values like true & false and the operations that relate them, most typically "and", "or" and "not". Since everyone has a basic understanding of the concepts of true & false and basic conjunctions, everyone also has a basic understanding of boolean concepts -- they just may not realize it. byte A byte is a grouping of bits. It is typically eight bits, but there are those who use non-standard byte sizes. Bytes are usually measured in large groups, and the term "kilobyte" (often abbreviated as K) means one-thousand twenty-four (1024) bytes; the term "megabyte" (often abbreviated as M) means one-thousand twenty-four (1024) K; the term gigabyte (often abbreviated as G) means one-thousand twenty-four (1024) M; and the term "terabyte" (often abbreviated as T) means one-thousand twenty-four (1024) G. Memory is typically measured in kilobytes or megabytes, and disk space is typically measured in megabytes or gigabytes. Note that the multipliers here are 1024 instead of the more common 1000 as would be used in the metric system. This is to make it easier to work with the binary number system. Note also that some hardware manufacturers will use the smaller 1000 multiplier on M & G quantities to make their disk drives seem larger than they really are; buyer beware. bytecode Sometimes computer languages that are said to be either interpreted or compiled are in fact neither and are more accurately said to be somewhere in between. Such languages are compiled into bytecode which is then interpreted on the target system. Bytecode tends to be binary but will work on any machine with the appropriate runtime environment (or virtual machine) for it. C C is one of the most popular computer languages in the world, and quite possibly the most popular. It is a compiled langauge widely supported on many platforms. It tends to be more portable than FORTRAN but less portable than Java; it has been standardized by ANSI as "ANSI C" -- older versions are called either "K&R C" or "Kernighan and Ritchie C" (in honor of C's creators), or sometimes just "classic C". Fast and simple, it can be applied to all manner of general purpose tasks. C compilers are made by several companies, but the free GNU version (gcc) is still considered one of the best. Newer C-like object-oriented languages include both Java and C++. C# C# is a compiled object-oriented language based heavily on C++ with some Java features. C++ C++ is a compiled object-oriented language. Based heavily on C, C++ is nearly as fast and can often be thought of as being just C with added features. It is currently probably the second most popular object-oriented language, but it has the drawback of being fairly complex -- the much simpler but somewhat slower Java is probably the most popular object-oriented language. Note that C++ was developed independently of the somewhat similar Objective-C; it is however related to Objective-C++. C64/128 The Commodore 64 computer to this day holds the record for being the most successful model of computer ever made with even the lowest estimates being in the tens of millions. Its big brother, the Commodore 128, was not quite as popular but still sold several million units. Both units sported ROM-based BASIC and used it as a default "OS". The C128 also came with CP/M (it was a not-often-exercized option on the C64). In their later days they were also packaged with GEOS. Both are based on 65xx family processors. They are still in use today and boast a friendly and surprisingly active user community. There is even a current effort to port Linux to the C64 and C128 machines. CDE The common desktop environment is a popular commercial window manager (and much more -- as its name touts, it is more of a desktop environment) that runs under X-Windows. Free work-alike versions are also available. chain Some computer devices support chaining, the ability to string multiple devices in a sequence plugged into just one computer port. Often, but not always, such a chain will require some sort of terminator to mark the end. For an example, a SCSI scanner may be plugged into a SCSI CD-ROM drive that is plugged into a SCSI hard drive that is in turn plugged into the main computer. For all these components to work properly, the scanner would also have to have a proper terminator in use. Device chaining has been around a long time, and it is interesting to note that C64/128 serial devices supported it from the very beginning. Today the most common low-cost chainable devices in use support USB while the fastest low-cost chainable devices in use support FireWire. character set Since in reality all a computer can store are series of zeros and ones, representing common things like text takes a little work. The solution is to view the series of zeros and ones instead as a sequence of bytes, and map each one to a particular letter, number, or symbol. The full mapping is called a character set. The most popular character set is commonly referred to as ASCII. The second most popular character set these days is Unicode (and it will probably eventually surpass ASCII). Other fairly common character sets include EBCDIC and PETSCII. They are generally quite different from one another; programs exist to convert between them on most platforms, though. Usually EBCDIC is only found on really old machines. CISC Complex instruction set computing is one of the two main types of processor design in use today. It is slowly losing popularity to RISC designs; currently all the fastest processors in the world are RISC. The most popular current CISC processor is the x86, but there are also still some 68xx, 65xx, and Z80s in use. CLI A command-line interface is a text-based means of communicating with a program, especially an OS. This is the sort of interface used by MS-DOS, or a UNIX shell window. COBOL The Common Business Oriented Language is a language developed back in 1959 and still used by some businesses. While it is relatively portable, it is still disliked by many professional programmers simply because COBOL programs tend to be physically longer than equivalent programs written in almost any other language in common use. compiled If a program is compiled, its original human-readable source has been converted into a form more easily used by a computer prior to it being run. Such programs will generally run more quickly than interpreted programs, because time was pre-spent in the compilation phase. A program that compiles other programs is called a compiler. compression It is often possible to remove redundant information or capitalize on patterns in data to make a file smaller. Usually when a file has been compressed, it cannot be used until it is uncompressed. Image files are common exceptions, though, as many popular image file formats have compression built-in. cookie A cookie is a small file that a web page on another machine writes to your personal machine's disk to store various bits of information. Many people strongly detest cookies and the whole idea of them, and most browsers allow the reception of cookies to be disabled or at least selectively disabled, but it should be noted that both Netscape and MSIE have silent cookie reception enabled by default. Sites that maintain shopping carts or remember a reader's last position have legitimate uses for cookies. Sites without such functionality that still spew cookies with distant (or worse, non-existent) expiration dates should perhaps be treated with a little caution. CP/M An early DOS for desktops, CP/M runs on both Z80 and the x86 based machines. CP/M provides only a CLI and there really is not any standard way to get a window manager to run on top of it. It is fairly complex and tricky to use. In spite of all this, CP/M was once the most popular DOS and is still in use today. crash If a bug in a program is severe enough, it can cause that program to crash, or to become inoperable without being restarted. On machines that are not multitasking, the entire machine will crash and have to be rebooted. On machines that are only partially multitasking the entire machine will sometimes crash and have to be rebooted. On machines that are fully multitasking, the machine should never crash and require a reboot. Cray A Cray is a high-end computer used for research and frequently heavy-duty graphics applications. Modern Crays typically have Solaris for their OS and sport sixty-four RISC processors; older ones had various other configurations. Current top-of-the-line Crays can have over 2000 processors. crippleware Crippleware is a variant of shareware that will either self-destruct after its trial period or has built-in limitations to its functionality that get removed after its purchase. CSS Cascading style sheets are used in conjunction with HTML and XHTML to define the layout of web pages. While CSS is how current web pages declare how they should be displayed, it tends not to be supported well (if at all) by ancient browsers. XSL performs this same function more generally. desktop publisher A program for creating newspapers, magazines, books, etc. Some common desktop publishing programs include FrameMaker, PageMaker, InDesign, and GeoPublish. DHTML Dynamic HTML is simply the combined use of both CSS and JavaScript together in the same document; a more extreme form is called AJaX. Note that DHTML is quite different from the similarly named DTML. dict A protocol used for looking up definitions across a network (in particular the Internet). digital camera A digital camera looks and behaves like a regular camera, except instead of using film, it stores the image it sees in memory as a file for later transfer to a computer. Many digital cameras offer additional storage besides their own internal memory; a few sport some sort of disk but the majority utilize some sort of flash card. Digital cameras currently lack the resolution and color palette of real cameras, but are usually much more convenient for computer applications. Another related device is called a scanner. DIMM A physical component used to add RAM to a computer. Similar to, but incompatible with, SIMMs. DNS Domain name service is the means by which a name (like www.wrightitdown.net or ftp.wrightitdown.net) gets converted into a real Internet address that points to a particular machine. DoS In a denial of service attack, many individual (usually compromised) computers are used to try and simultaneously access the same public resource with the intent of overburdening it so that it will not be able to adequately serve its normal users. DOS A disk operating system manages disks and other system resources. Sort of a subset of OSes, sort of an archaic term for the same. MS-DOS is the most popular program currently calling itself a DOS. CP/M was the most popular prior to MS-DOS. download To download a file is to copy it from a remote computer to your own. The opposite is upload. DR-DOS The DOS currently produced by Caldera (originally produced by Design Research as a successor to CP/M) designed to work like MS-DOS. While similar to CP/M in many ways, it utilizes simpler commands. It provides only a CLI, but either Windows 3.1 or GEOS may be run on top of it to provide a GUI. It only runs on x86 based machines. driver A driver is a piece of software that works with the OS to control a particular piece of hardware, like a printer or a scanner or a mouse or whatever. DRM Depending upon whom you ask, DRM can stand for either Digital Rights Management or Digital Restrictions Management. In either case, DRM is used to place restrictions upon the usage of digital media ranging from software to music to video. DTML The Document Template Mark-up Language is a subset of SGML and a superset of HTML used for creating documents that dynamically adapt to external conditions using its own custom tags and a little bit of Python. Note that it is quite different from the similarly named DHTML. EDBIC The EDBIC character set is similar to (but less popular than) the ASCII character set in concept, but is significantly different in layout. It tends to be found only on old machines.. emacs Emacs is both one of the most powerful and one of the most popular text editing programs in existence. Versions can be found for most platforms, and in fact multiple companies make versions, so for a given platform there might even be a choice. There is even a free GNU version available. The drawback with emacs is that it is not in the least bit lightweight. In fact, it goes so far in the other direction that even its advocates will occasionally joke about it. It is however extremely capable. Almost anything that one would need to relating to text can be done with emacs and is probably built-in. Even if one manages to find something that emacs was not built to do, emacs has a built-in Lisp interpreter capable of not only extending its text editing capabilities, but even of being used as a scripting language in its own right. embedded An embedded system is a computer that lives inside another device and acts as a component of that device. For example, current cars have an embedded computer under the hood that helps regulate much of their day to day operation. An embedded file is a file that lives inside another and acts as a portion of that file. This is frequently seen with HTML files having embedded audio files; audio files often embedded in HTML include AU files, MIDI files, SID files, WAV files, AIFF files, and MOD files. Most browsers will ignore these files unless an appropriate plug-in is present. emulator An emulator is a program that allows one computer platform to mimic another for the purposes of running its software. Typically (but not always) running a program through an emulator will not be quite as pleasent an experience as running it on the real system. endian A processor will be either "big endian" or "little endian" based upon the manner in which it encodes multiple byte values. There is no difference in performance between the two encoding methods, but it is one of the sources of difficulty when reading binary data on different platforms. environment An environment (sometimes also called a runtime environment) is a collection of external variable items or parameters that a program can access when run. Information about the computer's hardware and the user can often be found in the environment. EPOC EPOC is a lightweight OS. It is most commonly found on the Psion PDA. extension Filename extensions originate back in the days of CP/M and basically allow a very rough grouping of different file types by putting a tag at the end of the name. To further complicate matters, the tag is sometimes separated by the name proper by a period "." and sometimes by a tab. While extensions are semi-enforced on CP/M, MS-DOS, and MS-Windows, they have no real meaning aside from convention on other platforms and are only optional. FAQ A frequently asked questions file attempts to provide answers for all commonly asked questions related to a given topic. FireWire An incredibly fast type of serial port that offers many of the best features of SCSI at a lower price. Faster than most types of parallel port, a single FireWire port is capable of chaining many devices without the need of a terminator. FireWire is similar in many respects to USB but is significantly faster and somewhat more expensive. It is heavily used for connecting audio/video devices to computers, but is also used for connecting storage devices like drives and other assorted devices like printers and scanners. fixed width As applied to a font, fixed width means that every character takes up the same amount of space. That is, an "i" will be just as wide as an "m" with empty space being used for padding. The opposite is variable width. The most common fixed width font is Courier. flash Flash memory is similar to RAM. It has one significant advantage: it does not lose its contents when power is lost; it has two main disadvantages: it is slower, and it eventually wears out. Flash memory is frequently found in PCMCIA cards. font In a simplistic sense, a font can be thought of as the physical description of a character set. While the character set will define what sets of bits map to what letters, numbers, and other symbols, the font will define what each letter, number, and other symbol looks like. Fonts can be either fixed width or variable width and independently, either bitmapped or vectored. The size of the large characters in a font is typically measured in points. Forth A language developed in 1970 by Moore. Forth is fairly portable and has versions on many different platforms. While it is no longer an very popular language, many of its ideas and concepts have been carried into other computer programs. In particular, some programs for doing heavy-duty mathematical and engineering work use Forth-like interfaces. FORTRAN FORTRAN stands for formula translation and is the oldest computer language in the world. It is typically compiled and is quite fast. Its primary drawbacks are portability and ease-of-use -- often different FORTRAN compilers on different platforms behave quite differently in spite of standardization efforts in 1966 (FORTRAN 66 or FORTRAN IV), 1978 (FORTRAN 77), and 1991 (FORTRAN 90). Today languages like C and Java are more popular, but FORTRAN is still heavily used in military software. It is somewhat amusing to note that when FORTRAN was first released back in 1958 its advocates thought that it would mean the end of software bugs. In truth of course by making the creation of more complex software practical, computer languages have merely created new types of software bugs. FreeBSD A free variant of Berkeley UNIX available for Alpha and x86 based machines. It is not as popular as Linux. freeware Freeware is software that is available for free with no strings attached. The quality is often superb as the authors are also generally users. FTP The file transfer protocol is one of the most commonly used methods of copying files across the Internet. It has its origins on UNIX machines, but has been adapted to almost every type of computer in existence and is built into many browsers. Most FTP programs have two modes of operation, ASCII, and binary. Transmitting an ASCII file via the ASCII mode of operation is more efficient and cleaner. Transmitting a binary file via the ASCII mode of operation will result in a broken binary file. Thus the FTP programs that do not support both modes of operation will typically only do the binary mode, as binary transfers are capable of transferring both kinds of data without corruption. gateway A gateway connects otherwise separate computer networks. GEOS The graphic environment operating system is a lightweight OS with a GUI. It runs on several different processors, including the 65xx (different versions for different machines -- there are versions for the C64, the C128, and the Apple ][, each utilizing the relevant custom chip sets), the x86 (although the x86 version is made to run on top of MS-DOS (or PC-DOS or DR-DOS) and is not strictly a full OS or a window manager, rather it is somewhat in between, like Windows 3.1) and numerous different PDAs, embedded devices, and hand-held machines. It was originally designed by Berkeley Softworks (no real relation to the Berkeley of UNIX fame) but is currently in a more interesting state: the company GeoWorks develops and promotes development of GEOS for hand-held devices, PDAs, & and embedded devices and owns (but has ceased further development on) the x86 version. The other versions are owned (and possibly still being developed) by the company CMD. GHz & gigahertz One gigahertz is equivalent to 1000 megahertz, or 1,000,000,000 hertz. Glulx A virtual machine optimized for running interactive fiction, interactive tutorials, and other interactive things of a primarily textual nature. Glulx has been ported to several platforms, and in in many ways an upgrade to the Z-machine. GNOME The GNU network object model environment is a popular free window manager (and much more -- as its name touts, it is more of a desktop environment) that runs under X-Windows. It is a part of the GNU project. GNU GNU stands for GNU's not UNIX and is thus a recursive acronym (and unlike the animal name, the "G" here is pronounced). At any rate, the GNU project is an effort by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) to make all of the traditional UNIX utilities free for whoever wants them. The Free Software Foundation programmers know their stuff, and the quality of the GNU software is on par with the best produced commercially, and often better. All of the GNU software can be downloaded for free or obtained on CD-ROM for a small service fee. Documentation for all GNU software can be downloaded for free or obtained in book form for a small service fee. The Free Software Foundation pays its bills from the collection of service fees and the sale of T-shirts, and exists mostly through volunteer effort. It is based in Cambridge, MA. gopher Though not as popular as FTP or http, the gopher protocol is implemented by many browsers and numerous other programs and allows the transfer of files across networks. In some respects it can be thought of as a hybrid between FTP and http, although it tends not to be as good at raw file transfer as FTP and is not as flexible as http. The collection of documents available through gopher is often called "gopherspace", and it should be noted that gopherspace is older than the web. It should also be noted that gopher is not getting as much attention as it once did, and surfing through gopherspace is a little like exploring a ghost town, but there is an interesting VR interface available for it, and some things in gopherspace still have not been copied onto the web. GUI A graphical user interface is a graphics-based means of communicating with a program, especially an OS or window manager. In fact, a window manager can be thought of as a GUI for a CLI OS. HP-UX HP-UX is the version of UNIX designed by Hewlett-Packard to work with their PA-RISC and 68xx based machines. HTML The Hypertext Mark-up Language is the language currently most frequently used to express web pages (although it is rapidly being replaced by XHTML). Every browser has the built-in ability to understand HTML. Some browsers can additionally understand Java and browse FTP areas. HTML is a proper subset of SGML. http The hypertext transfer protocol is the native protocol of browsers and is most typically used to transfer HTML formatted files. The secure version is called "https". Hurd The Hurd is the official GNU OS. It is still in development and is not yet supported on too many different processors, but promises to be the most powerful OS available. It (like all the GNU software) is free. Hz & hertz Hertz means cycles per second, and makes no assumptions about what is cycling. So, for example, if a fluorescent light flickers once per jiffy, it has a 60 Hz flicker. More typical for computers would be a program that runs once per jiffy and thus has a 60 Hz frequency, or larger units of hertz like kHz, MHz, GHz, or THz. i18n Commonly used to abbreviate the word "internationalization". There are eighteen letters between the "i" and the "n". Similar to (and often used along with) i18n. iCalendar The iCalendar standard refers to the format used to store calendar type information (including events, to-do items, and journal entries) on the Internet. iCalendar data can be found on some World-Wide-Web pages or attached to e-mail messages. icon A small graphical display representing an object, action, or modifier of some sort. IDE Loosely speaking, a disk format sometimes used by MS-Windows, Mac OS, AmigaOS, and (rarely) UNIX. EIDE is enhanced IDE; it is much faster. Generally IDE is inferior (but less expensive) to SCSI, but it varies somewhat with system load and the individual IDE and SCSI components themselves. The quick rundown is that: SCSI-I and SCSI-II will almost always outperform IDE; EIDE will almost always outperform SCSI-I and SCSI-II; SCSI-III and UltraSCSI will almost always outperform EIDE; and heavy system loads give an advantage to SCSI. Note that although loosely speaking it is just a format difference, it is deep down a hardware difference. Inform A compiled, object-oriented language optimized for creating interactive fiction. infrared communications A device with an infrared port can communicate with other devices at a distance by beaming infrared light signals. Two incompatible protocols are used for infrared communications: IrDA and ASK. Many devices support both. Instant Messenger AOL's Instant Messenger is is a means of chatting over the Internet in real-time. It allows both open group discussions and private conversations. Instant Messenger uses a different, proprietary protocol from the more standard IRC, and is not supported on as many platforms. interactive fiction Interactive fiction (often abbreviated "IF" or "I-F") is a form of literature unique to the computer. While the reader cannot influence the direction of a typical story, the reader plays a more active role in an interactive fiction story and completely controls its direction. Interactive fiction works come in all the sizes and genres available to standard fiction, and in fact are not always even fiction per se (interactive tutorials exist and are slowly becoming more common). interpreted If a program is interpreted, its actual human-readable source is read as it is run by the computer. This is generally a slower process than if the program being run has already been compiled. intranet An intranet is a private network. There are many intranets scattered all over the world. Some are connected to the Internet via gateways. IP IP is the family of protocols that makes up the Internet. The two most common flavors are TCP/IP and UDP/IP. IRC Internet relay chat is a means of chatting over the Internet in real-time. It allows both open group discussions and private conversations. IRC programs are provided by many different companies and will work on many different platforms. AOL's Instant Messenger utilizes a separate incompatible protocol but is otherwise very similar. IrDA The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is a voluntary organization of various manufacturers working together to ensure that the infrared communications between different computers, PDAs, printers, digital cameras, remote controls, etc. are all compatible with each other regardless of brand. The term is also often used to designate an IrDA compliant infrared communications port on a device. Informally, a device able to communicate via IrDA compliant infrared is sometimes simply said to "have IrDA". There is also an earlier, incompatible, and usually slower type of infrared communications still in use called ASK. IRI An Internationalized Resource Identifier is just a URI with i18n. IRIX The variant of UNIX designed by Silicon Graphics, Inc. IRIX machines are known for their graphics capabilities and were initially optimized for multimedia applications. ISDN An integrated service digital network line can be simply looked at as a digital phone line. ISDN connections to the Internet can be four times faster than the fastest regular phone connection, and because it is a digital connection a modem is not needed. Any computer hooked up to ISDN will typically require other special equipment in lieu of the modem, however. Also, both phone companies and ISPs charge more for ISDN connections than regular modem connections. ISP An Internet service provider is a company that provides Internet support for other entities. AOL (America Online) is a well-known ISP. Java A computer language designed to be both fairly lightweight and extremely portable. It is tightly bound to the web as it is the primary language for web applets. There has also been an OS based on Java for use on small hand-held, embedded, and network computers. It is called JavaOS. Java can be either interpreted or compiled. For web applet use it is almost always interpreted. While its interpreted form tends not to be very fast, its compiled form can often rival languages like C++ for speed. It is important to note however that speed is not Java's primary purpose -- raw speed is considered secondary to portabilty and ease of use. JavaScript JavaScript (in spite of its name) has nothing whatsoever to do with Java (in fact, it's arguably more like Newton Script than Java). JavaScript is an interpreted language built into a browser to provide a relatively simple means of adding interactivity to web pages. It is only supported on a few different browsers, and tends not to work exactly the same on different versions. Thus its use on the Internet is somewhat restricted to fairly simple programs. On intranets where there are usually fewer browser versions in use, JavaScript has been used to implement much more complex and impressive programs. jiffy A jiffy is 1/60 of a second. Jiffies are to seconds as seconds are to minutes. joystick A joystick is a physical device typically used to control objects on a computer screen. It is frequently used for games and sometimes used in place of a mouse. JSON The JSON is used for data interchange between programs, an area in which the ubiquitous XML is not too well-suited. JSON is lightweight and works extremely cleanly with languages languages including JavaScript, Python, Java, C++, and many others. JSON-RPC JSON-RPC is like XML-RPC but is significantly more lightweight since it uses JSON in lieu of XML. KDE The K desktop environment is a popular free window manager (and much more -- as its name touts, it is more of a desktop environment) that runs under X-Windows. Kerberos Kerberos is a network authentication protocol. Basically it preserves the integrity of passwords in any untrusted network (like the Internet). Kerberized applications work hand-in-hand with sites that support Kerberos to ensure that passwords cannot be stolen. kernel The very heart of an OS is often called its kernel. It will usually (at minimum) provide some libraries that give programmers access to its various features. kHz & kilohertz One kilohertz is equivalent to 1000 hertz. Some older computers have clock speeds measured in kHz. l10n Commonly used to abbreviate the word "localization". There are ten letters between the "l" and the "n". Similar to (and often used along with) i18n. LDAP The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol provides a means of sharing address book type of information across an intranet or even across the Internet. Note too that "address book type of information" here is pretty broad; it often includes not just human addresses, but machine addresses, printer configurations, and similar. library A selection of routines used by programmers to make computers do particular things. lightweight Something that is lightweight will not consume computer resources (such as RAM and disk space) too much and will thus run on less expensive computer systems. Linux Believe it or not, one of the fastest, most robust, and powerful multitasking OSes is available for free. Linux can be downloaded for free or be purchased on CD-ROM for a small service charge. A handful of companies distribute Linux including Red Hat, Debian, Caldera, and many others. Linux is also possibly available for more hardware combinations than any other OS (with the possible exception of NetBSD. Supported processors include: Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC, x86, and 68xx. Most processors currently not supported are currently works-in-progress or even available in beta. For example, work is currently underway to provide support for PA-RISC, 65xx, StrongARM, and Z80. People have even successfully gotten Linux working on PDAs. As you may have guessed, Linux can be made quite lightweight. Linux is a variant of UNIX and as such, most of the traditional UNIX software will run on Linux. This especially includes the GNU software, most of which comes with the majority of Linux distributions. Fast, reliable, stable, and inexpensive, Linux is popular with ISPs, software developers, and home hobbyists alike. Lisp Lisp stands for list processing and is the second oldest computer language in the world. Being developed in 1959, it lost the title to FORTRAN by only a few months. It is typically interpreted, but compilers are available for some platforms. Attempts were made to standardize the language, and the standard version is called "Common Lisp". There have also been efforts to simplify the language, and the results of these efforts is another language called Scheme. Lisp is a fairly portable language, but is not particularly fast. Today, Lisp is most widely used with AI software. load There are two popular meanings for load. The first means to fetch some data or a program from a disk and store it in memory. The second indicates the amount of work a component (especially a processor) is being made to do. Logo Logo is an interpreted language designed by Papert in 1966 to be a tool for helping people (especially kids) learn computer programming concepts. In addition to being used for that purpose, it is often used as a language for controlling mechanical robots and other similar devices. Logo interfaces even exist for building block / toy robot sets. Logo uses a special graphics cursor called "the turtle", and Logo is itself sometimes called "Turtle Graphics". Logo is quite portable but not particularly fast. Versions can be found on almost every computer platform in the world. Additionally, some other languages (notably some Pascal versions) provide Logo-like interfaces for graphics-intensive programming. lossy If a process is lossy, it means that a little quality is lost when it is performed. If a format is lossy, it means that putting data into that format (or possibly even manipulating it in that format) will cause some slight loss. Lossy processes and formats are typically used for performance or resource utilization reasons. The opposite of lossy is lossless. Lua Lua is a simple interpreted language. It is extremely portable, and free versions exist for most platforms. Mac OS Mac OS is the OS used on Macintosh computers. There are two distinctively different versions of it; everything prior to version 10 (sometimes called Mac OS Classic) and everything version 10 or later (called Mac OS X). Mac OS Classic The OS created by Apple and originally used by Macs is frequently (albeit slightly incorrectly) referred to as Mac OS Classic (officially Mac OS Classic is this original OS running under the modern Mac OS X in emulation. Mac OS combines the functionality of both an OS and a window manager and is often considered to be the easiest OS to use. It is partially multitasking but will still sometimes crash when dealing with a buggy program. It is probably the second most popular OS, next only to Windows 'XP (although it is quickly losing ground to Mac OS X) and has excellent driver support and boasts a fair selection of games. Mac OS will run on PowerPC and 68xx based machines. Mac OS X Mac OS X (originally called Rhapsody) is the industrial strength OS produced by Apple to run on both PowerPC and x86 systems (replacing what is often referred to as Mac OS Classic. Mac OS X is at its heart a variant of UNIX and possesses its underlying power (and the ability to run many of the traditional UNIX tools, including the GNU tools). It also was designed to mimic other OSes on demand via what it originally refered to as "boxes" (actually high-performance emulators); it has the built-in capability to run programs written for older Mac OS (via its "BlueBox", officially called Mac OS Classic) and work was started on making it also run Windows '95 / '98 / ME software (via what was called its "YellowBox"). There are also a few rumors going around that future versions may even be able to run Newton software (via the "GreenBox"). It provides a selection of two window managers built-in: Aqua and X-Windows (with Aqua being the default). machine language Machine language consists of the raw numbers that can be directly understood by a particular processor. Each processor's machine language will be different from other processors' machine language. Although called "machine language", it is not usually what people think of when talking about computer languages. Machine language dressed up with mnemonics to make it a bit more human-readable is called assembly language. Macintosh A Macintosh (or a Mac for short) is a computer system that has Mac OS for its OS. There are a few different companies that have produced Macs, but by far the largest is Apple. The oldest Macs are based on the 68xx processor; somewhat more recent Macs on the PowerPC processor, and current Macs on the x86 processor. The Macintosh was really the first general purpose computer to employ a GUI. MacTel An x86 based system running some flavor of Mac OS. mainframe A mainframe is any computer larger than a small piece of furniture. A modern mainframe is more powerful than a modern workstation, but more expensive and more difficult to maintain. MathML The Math Mark-up Language is a subset of XML used to represent mathematical formulae and equations. Typically it is found embedded within XHTML documents, although as of this writing not all popular browsers support it. megahertz A million cycles per second, abbreviated MHz. This is often used misleadingly to indicate processor speed, because while one might expect that a higher number would indicate a faster processor, that logic only holds true within a given type of processors as different types of processors are capable of doing different amounts of work within a cycle. For a current example, either a 200 MHz PowerPC or a 270 MHz SPARC will outperform a 300 MHz Pentium. Merced The Merced is a RISC processor developed by Intel with help from Hewlett-Packard and possibly Sun. It is just starting to be released, but is intended to eventually replace both the x86 and PA-RISC processors. Curiously, HP is recommending that everyone hold off using the first release and instead wait for the second one. It is expected some day to be roughly as fast as an Alpha or PowerPC. It is expected to be supported by future versions of Solaris, Windows-NT, HP-UX, Mac OS X, and Linux. The current semi-available Merced processor is called the Itanium. Its overall schedule is way behind, and some analysts predict that it never will really be released in significant quanitities. MFM Loosely speaking, An old disk format sometimes used by CP/M, MS-DOS, and MS-Windows. No longer too common as it cannot deliver close to the performance of either SCSI or IDE. middleware Software designed to sit in between an OS and applications. Common examples are Java and Tcl/Tk. MIME The multi-purpose Internet mail extensions specification describes a means of sending non-ASCII data (such as images, sounds, foreign symbols, etc.) through e-mail. It commonly utilizes bcode. MMX Multimedia extensions were built into some x86 CPUs to provide better performance for certain operations, most notably graphics and sound. It is similar to AltiVec on the PowerPC CPUs. Like AltiVec, it requires special software for full performance benefits to be realized. MOB A movable object is a graphical object that is manipulated separately from the background. These are seen all the time in computer games. When implemented in hardware, MOBs are sometimes called sprites. Modula-2 Modula-2 is an object-oriented language based on Pascal by its original author in 1977. Modula-3 is a further enhanced form. Both versions are compiled languages. MOTD A message of the day. Many computers (particularly more capable ones) are configured to display a MOTD when accessed remotely. Motif Motif is a popular commercial window manager that runs under X-Windows. Free work-alike versions are also available. MS-DOS The DOS produced by Microsoft. Early versions of it bear striking similarities to the earlier CP/M, but it utilizes simpler commands. It provides only a CLI, but either OS/2, Windows 3.1, Windows '95, Windows '98, Windows ME, or GEOS may be run on top of it to provide a GUI. It only runs on x86 based machines. MS-Windows MS-Windows is the name collectively given to several somewhat incompatible OSes all produced by Microsoft. They are: Windows CE, Windows NT, Windows 3.1, Windows '95, Windows '98, Windows ME, Windows 2000, and Windows XP. MUD A multi-user dimension (also sometimes called multi-user dungeon, but in either case abbreviated to "MUD") is sort of a combination between the online chatting abilities provided by something like IRC and a role-playing game. A MUD built with object oriented principles in mind is called a "Multi-user dimension object-oriented", or MOO. Yet another variant is called a "multi-user shell", or MUSH. Still other variants are called multi-user role-playing environments (MURPE) and multi-user environments (MUSE). There are probably more. In all cases the differences will be mostly academic to the regular user, as the same software is used to connect to all of them. Software to connect to MUDs can be found for most platforms, and there are even Java based ones that can run from within a browser. multitasking Some OSes have built into them the ability to do several things at once. This is called multitasking, and has been in use since the late sixties / early seventies. Since this ability is built into the software, the overall system will be slower running two things at once than it will be running just one thing. A system may have more than one processor built into it though, and such a system will be capable of running multiple things at once with less of a performance hit. nagware Nagware is a variant of shareware that will frequently remind its users to register. NetBSD A free variant of Berkeley UNIX available for Alpha, x86, 68xx, PA-RISC, SPARC, PowerPC, ARM, and many other types of machines. Its emphasis is on portability. netiquette The established conventions of online politeness are called netiquette. Some conventions vary from site to site or online medium to online medium; others are pretty standard everywhere. Newbies are often unfamiliar with the conventional rules of netiquette and sometimes embarrass themselves accordingly. Be sure not to send that incredibly important e-mail message before reading about netiquette. newbie A newbie is a novice to the online world or computers in general. news Usenet news can generally be thought of as public e-mail as that is generally the way it behaves. In reality, it is implemented by different software and is often accessed by different programs. Different newsgroups adhere to different topics, and some are "moderated", meaning that humans will try to manually remove off-topic posts, especially spam. Most established newsgroups have a FAQ, and people are strongly encouraged to read the FAQ prior to posting. Newton Although Newton is officially the name of the lightweight OS developed by Apple to run on its MessagePad line of PDAs, it is often used to mean the MessagePads (and compatible PDAs) themselves and thus the term "Newton OS" is often used for clarity. The Newton OS is remarkably powerful; it is fully multitasking in spite of the fact that it was designed for small machines. It is optimized for hand-held use, but will readily transfer data to all manner of desktop machines. Historically it was the first PDA. Recently Apple announced that it will discontinue further development of the Newton platform, but will instead work to base future hand-held devices on either Mac OS or Mac OS X with some effort dedicated to making the new devices capable of running current Newton programs. Newton book Newton books provide all the functionality of ordinary books but add searching and hypertext capabilities. The format was invented for the Newton to provide a means of making volumes of data portable, and is particularly popular in the medical community as most medical references are available as Newton books and carrying around a one pound Newton is preferable to carrying around twenty pounds of books, especially when it comes to looking up something. In addition to medical books, numerous references, most of the classics, and many contemporary works of fiction are available as Newton books. Most fiction is available for free, most references cost money. Newton books are somewhat more capable than the similar Palm DOC; both are specific types of e-books. Newton Script A intepreted, object-oriented language for Newton MessagePad computers. nybble A nybble is half a byte, or four bits. It is a case of computer whimsy; it only stands to reason that a small byte should be called a nybble. Some authors spell it with an "i" instead of the "y", but the "y" is the original form. object-oriented While the specifics are well beyond the scope of this document, the term "object-oriented" applies to a philosophy of software creation. Often this philosophy is referred to as object-oriented design (sometimes abbreviated as OOD), and programs written with it in mind are referred to as object-oriented programs (often abbreviated OOP). Programming languages designed to help facilitate it are called object-oriented languages (sometimes abbreviated as OOL) and databases built with it in mind are called object-oriented databases (sometimes abbreviated as OODB or less fortunately OOD). The general notion is that an object-oriented approach to creating software starts with modeling the real-world problems trying to be solved in familiar real-world ways, and carries the analogy all the way down to structure of the program. This is of course a great over-simplification. Numerous object-oriented programming languages exist including: Java, C++, Modula-2, Newton Script, and ADA. Objective-C & ObjC Objective-C (often called "ObjC" for short) is a compiled object-oriented language. Based heavily on C, Objective-C is nearly as fast and can often be thought of as being just C with added features. Note that it was developed independently of C++; its object-oriented extensions are more in the style of Smalltalk. It is however related to Objective-C++. Objective-C++ & ObjC++ Objective-C++ (often called "ObjC++" for short) is a curious hybrid of Objective-C and C++, allowing the syntax of both to coexist in the same source files. office suite An office suite is a collection of programs including at minimum a word processor, spreadsheet, drawing program, and minimal database program. Some common office suites include MS-Office, AppleWorks, ClarisWorks, GeoWorks, Applixware, Corel Office, and StarOffice. open source Open source software goes one step beyond freeware. Not only does it provide the software for free, it provides the original source code used to create the software. Thus, curious users can poke around with it to see how it works, and advanced users can modify it to make it work better for them. By its nature, open souce software is pretty well immune to all types of computer virus. OpenBSD A free variant of Berkeley UNIX available for Alpha, x86, 68xx, PA-RISC, SPARC, and PowerPC based machines. Its emphasis is on security. OpenDocument & ODF OpenDocument (or ODF for short) is the suite of open, XML-based office suite application formats defined by the OASIS consortium. It defines a platform-neutral, non-proprietary way of storing documents. OpenGL A low-level 3D graphics library with an emphasis on speed developed by SGI. OS/2 OS/2 is the OS designed by IBM to run on x86 based machines. It is semi-compatible with MS-Windows. IBM's more industrial strength OS is called AIX. PA-RISC The PA-RISC is a RISC processor developed by Hewlett-Packard. It is currently produced only by HP. At the moment only one OS runs on PA-RISC based machines: HP-UX. There is an effort underway to port Linux to them, though. Palm DOC Palm DOC files are quite similar to (but slightly less capable than) Newton books. They were designed for Palm Pilots but can now be read on a couple other platforms, too. They are a specific type of e-book. Palm Pilot The Palm Pilot (also called both just Palm and just Pilot, officially now just Palm) is the most popular PDA currently in use. It is one of the least capable PDAs, but it is also one of the smallest and least expensive. While not as full featured as many of the other PDAs (such as the Newton) it performs what features it does have quite well and still remains truly pocket-sized. parallel Loosely speaking, parallel implies a situation where multiple things can be done simultaneously, like having multiple check-out lines each serving people all at once. Parallel connections are by their nature more expensive than serial ones, but usually faster. Also, in a related use of the word, often multitasking computers are said to be capable of running multiple programs in parallel. partition Sometimes due to hardware limitations, disks have to be divided into smaller pieces. These pieces are called partitions. Pascal Named after the mathematician Blaise Pascal, Pascal is a language designed by Niklaus Wirth originally in 1968 (and heavily revised in 1972) mostly for purposes of education and training people how to write computer programs. It is a typically compiled language but is still usually slower than C or FORTRAN. Wirth also created a more powerful object-oriented Pascal-like language called Modula-2. PC-DOS The DOS produced by IBM designed to work like MS-DOS. Early versions of it bear striking similarities to the earlier CP/M, but it utilizes simpler commands. It provides only a CLI, but either Windows 3.1 or GEOS may be run on top of it to provide a GUI. It only runs on x86 based machines. PCMCIA The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association is a standards body that concern themselves with PC Card technology. Often the PC Cards themselves are referred to as "PCMCIA cards". Frequently flash memory can be found in PC card form. Perl Perl is an interpreted language extremely popular for web applications. PET The Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) is an early (circa 1977-1980, around the same time as the Apple][) home computer featuring a ROM-based BASIC developed by Microsoft which it uses as a default "OS". It is based on the 65xx family of processors and is the precursor to the VIC-20. PETSCII The PETSCII character set gets its name from "PET ASCII; it is a variant of the ASCII character set originally developed for the Commodore PET that swaps the upper and lower case characters and adds over a hundred graphic characters in addition to other small changes. If you encounter some text that seems to have uppercase where lowercase is expected and vice-versa, it is probably a PETSCII file. PHP Named with a recursive acronym (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor), PHP provides a means of creating web pages that dynamically modify themselves on the fly. ping Ping is a protocol designed to check across a network to see if a particular computer is "alive" or not. Computers that recognize the ping will report back their status. Computers that are down will not report back anything at all. pixel The smallest distinct point on a computer display is called a pixel. plug-in A plug-in is a piece of software designed not to run on its own but rather work in cooperation with a separate application to increase that application's abilities. point There are two common meanings for this word. The first is in the geometric sense; a position in space without size. Of course as applied to computers it must take up some space in practise (even if not in theory) and it is thus sometimes synonomous with pixel. The other meaning is related most typically to fonts and regards size. The exact meaning of it in this sense will unfortunately vary somewhat from person to person, but will often mean 1/72 of an inch. Even when it does not exactly mean 1/72 of an inch, larger point sizes always indicate larger fonts. PowerPC The PowerPC is a RISC processor developed in a collaborative effort between IBM, Apple, and Motorola. It is currently produced by a few different companies, of course including its original developers. A few different OSes run on PowerPC based machines, including Mac OS, AIX, Solaris, Windows NT, Linux, Mac OS X, BeOS, and AmigaOS. At any given time, the fastest processor in the world is usually either a PowerPC or an Alpha, but sometimes SPARCs and PA-RISCs make the list, too. proprietary This simply means to be supplied by only one vendor. It is commonly misused. Currently, most processors are non-proprietary, some systems are non-proprietary, and every OS (except for arguably Linux) is proprietary. protocol A protocol is a means of communication used between computers. As long as both computers recognize the same protocol, they can communicate without too much difficulty over the same network or even via a simple direct modem connection regardless whether or not they are themselves of the same type. This means that WinTel boxes, Macs, Amigas, UNIX machines, etc., can all talk with one another provided they agree on a common protocol first. Psion The Psion is a fairly popular brand of PDA. Generally, it is in between a Palm and a Newton in capability. It runs the EPOC OS. Python Python is an interpreted, object-oriented language popular for Internet applications. It is extremely portable with free versions existing for virtually every platform. queue A queue is a waiting list of things to be processed. Many computers provide printing queues, for example. If something is being printed and the user requests that another item be printed, the second item will sit in the printer queue until the first item finishes printing at which point it will be removed from the queue and get printed itself. QuickDraw A high-level 3D graphics library with an emphasis on quick development time created by Apple. RAM Random access memory is the short-term memory of a computer. Any information stored in RAM will be lost if power goes out, but the computer can read from RAM far more quickly than from a drive. random access Also called "dynamic access" this indicates that data can be selected without having to skip over earlier data first. This is the way that a CD, record, laserdisc, or DVD will behave -- it is easy to selectively play a particular track without having to fast forward through earlier tracks. The other common behavior is called sequential access. RDF The Resource Description Framework is built upon an XML base and provides a more modern means of accessing data from Internet resources. It can provide metadata (including annotations) for web pages making (among other things) searching more capable. It is also being used to refashion some existing formats like RSS and iCalendar; in the former case it is already in place (at least for newer RSS versions), but it is still experimental in the latter case. real-time Something that happens in real-time will keep up with the events around it and never give any sort of "please wait" message. Rexx The Restructured Extended Executor is an interpreted language designed primarily to be embedded in other applications in order to make them consistently programmable, but also to be easy to learn and understand. RISC Reduced instruction set computing is one of the two main types of processor design in use today, the other being CISC. The fastest processors in the world today are all RISC designs. There are several popular RISC processors, including Alphas, ARMs, PA-RISCs, PowerPCs, and SPARCs. robot A robot (or 'bot for short) in the computer sense is a program designed to automate some task, often just sending messages or collecting information. A spider is a type of robot designed to traverse the web performing some task (usually collecting data). robust The adjective robust is used to describe programs that are better designed, have fewer bugs, and are less likely to crash. ROM Read-only memory is similar to RAM only cannot be altered and does not lose its contents when power is removed. RSS RSS stands for either Rich Site Summary, Really Simple Syndication, or RDF Site Summary, depending upon whom you ask. The general idea is that it can provide brief summaries of articles that appear in full on a web site. It is well-formed XML, and newer versions are even more specifically well-formed RDF. Ruby Ruby is an interpreted, object-oriented language. Ruby was fairly heavily influenced by Perl, so people familiar with that language can typically transition to Ruby easily. scanner A scanner is a piece of hardware that will examine a picture and produce a computer file that represents what it sees. A digital camera is a related device. Each has its own limitations. Scheme Scheme is a typically interpreted computer language. It was created in 1975 in an attempt to make Lisp simpler and more consistent. Scheme is a fairly portable language, but is not particularly fast. script A script is a series of OS commands. The term "batch file" means much the same thing, but is a bit dated. Typically the same sort of situations in which one would say DOS instead of OS, it would also be appropriate to say batch file instead of script. Scripts can be run like programs, but tend to perform simpler tasks. When a script is run, it is always interpreted. SCSI Loosely speaking, a disk format sometimes used by MS-Windows, Mac OS, AmigaOS, and (almost always) UNIX. Generally SCSI is superior (but more expensive) to IDE, but it varies somewhat with system load and the individual SCSI and IDE components themselves. The quick rundown is that: SCSI-I and SCSI-II will almost always outperform IDE; EIDE will almost always outperform SCSI-I and SCSI-II; SCSI-III and UltraSCSI will almost always outperform EIDE; and heavy system loads give an advantage to SCSI. Note that although loosely speaking it is just a format difference, it is deep down a hardware difference. sequential access This indicates that data cannot be selected without having to skip over earlier data first. This is the way that a cassette or video tape will behave. The other common behavior is called random access. serial Loosely speaking, serial implies something that has to be done linearly, one at a time, like people being served in a single check-out line. Serial connections are by their nature less expensive than parallel connections (including things like SCSI) but are typically slower. server A server is a computer designed to provide various services for an entire network. It is typically either a workstation or a mainframe because it will usually be expected to handle far greater loads than ordinary desktop systems. The load placed on servers also necessitates that they utilize robust OSes, as a crash on a system that is currently being used by many people is far worse than a crash on a system that is only being used by one person. SGML The Standard Generalized Mark-up Language provides an extremely generalized level of mark-up. More common mark-up languages like HTML and XML are actually just popular subsets of SGML. shareware Shareware is software made for profit that allows a trial period before purchase. Typically shareware can be freely downloaded, used for a period of weeks (or sometimes even months), and either purchased or discarded after it has been learned whether or not it will satisfy the user's needs. shell A CLI designed to simplify complex OS commands. Some OSes (like AmigaOS, the Hurd, and UNIX) have built-in support to make the concurrent use of multiple shells easy. Common shells include the Korn Shell (ksh), the Bourne Shell (sh or bsh), the Bourne-Again Shell, (bash or bsh), the C-Shell (csh), etc. SIMM A physical component used to add RAM to a computer. Similar to, but incompatible with, DIMMs. Smalltalk Smalltalk is an efficient language for writing computer programs. Historically it is one of the first object-oriented languages, and is not only used today in its pure form but shows its influence in other languages like Objective-C. Solaris Solaris is the commercial variant of UNIX currently produced by Sun. It is an industrial strength, nigh bulletproof, powerful multitasking OS that will run on SPARC, x86, and PowerPC based machines. spam Generally spam is unwanted, unrequested e-mail or Usenet news. It is typically sent out in bulk to huge address lists that were automatically generated by various robots endlessly searching the Internet and newsgroups for things that resemble e-mail addresses. The legality of spam is a topic of much debate; it is at best only borderline legal, and spammers have been successfully persecuted in some states. SPARC The SPARC is a RISC processor developed by Sun. The design was more or less released to the world, and it is currently produced by around a dozen different companies too numerous to even bother mentioning. It is worth noting that even computers made by Sun typically sport SPARCs made by other companies. A couple different OSes run on SPARC based machines, including Solaris, SunOS, and Linux. Some of the newer SPARC models are called UltraSPARCs. sprite A sprite is a small MOB, usually implemented in hardware. SQL SQL (pronounced Sequel) is an interpreted language specially designed for database access. It is supported by virtually every major modern database system. Sugar The window manager used by the OLPC XO. It is made to run on top of Linux. SunOS SunOS is the commercial variant of UNIX formerly produced (but still supported) by Sun. SVG Scalable Vector Graphics data is an XML file that is used to hold graphical data that can be resized without loss of quality. SVG data can be kept in its own file, or even embedded within a web page (although not all browsers are capable of displaying such data). Tcl/Tk The Tool Command Language is a portable interpreted computer language designed to be easy to use. Tk is a GUI toolkit for Tcl. Tcl is a fairly popular language for both integrating existing applications and for creating Web applets (note that applets written in Tcl are often called Tcklets). Tcl/Tk is available for free for most platforms, and plug-ins are available to enable many browsers to play Tcklets. TCP/IP TCP/IP is a protocol for computer networks. The Internet is largely built on top of TCP/IP (it is the more reliable of the two primary Internet Protocols -- TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol). terminator A terminator is a dedicated device used to mark the end of a device chain (as is most typically found with SCSI devices). If such a chain is not properly terminated, weird results can occur. TEX TEX (pronounced "tek") is a freely available, industrial strength typesetting program that can be run on many different platforms. These qualities make it exceptionally popular in schools, and frequently software developed at a university will have its documentation in TEX format. TEX is not limited to educational use, though; many professional books were typeset with TEX. TEX's primary drawback is that it can be quite difficult to set up initially. THz & terahertz One terahertz is equivalent to 1000 gigahertz. TrackBack TrackBacks essentially provide a means whereby different web sites can post messages to one another not just to inform each other about citations, but also to alert one another of related resources. Typically, a blog may display quotations from another blog through the use of TrackBacks. UDP/IP UDP/IP is a protocol for computer networks. It is the faster of the two primary Internet Protocols. UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. Unicode The Unicode character set is a superset of the ASCII character set with provisions made for handling international symbols and characters from other languages. Unicode is sixteen bit, so takes up roughly twice the space as simple ASCII, but is correspondingly more flexible. UNIX UNIX is a family of OSes, each being made by a different company or organization but all offering a very similar look and feel. It can not quite be considered non-proprietary, however, as the differences between different vendor's versions can be significant (it is still generally possible to switch from one vendor's UNIX to another without too much effort; today the differences between different UNIXes are similar to the differences between the different MS-Windows; historically there were two different UNIX camps, Berkeley / BSD and AT&T / System V, but the assorted vendors have worked together to minimalize the differences). The free variant Linux is one of the closest things to a current, non-proprietary OS; its development is controlled by a non-profit organization and its distribution is provided by several companies. UNIX is powerful; it is fully multitasking and can do pretty much anything that any OS can do (look to the Hurd if you need a more powerful OS). With power comes complexity, however, and UNIX tends not to be overly friendly to beginners (although those who think UNIX is difficult or cryptic apparently have not used CP/M). Window managers are available for UNIX (running under X-Windows) and once properly configured common operations will be almost as simple on a UNIX machine as on a Mac. Out of all the OSes in current use, UNIX has the greatest range of hardware support. It will run on machines built around many different processors. Lightweight versions of UNIX have been made to run on PDAs, and in the other direction, full featured versions make full advantage of all the resources on large, multi-processor machines. Some different UNIX versions include Solaris, Linux, IRIX, AIX, SunOS, FreeBSD, Digital UNIX, HP-UX, NetBSD, OpenBSD, etc. upload To upload a file is to copy it from your computer to a remote computer. The opposite is download. UPS An uninterrupted power supply uses heavy duty batteries to help smooth out its input power source. URI A Uniform Resource Identifier is basically just a unique address for almost any type of resource. It is similar to but more general than a URL; in fact, it may also be a URN. URL A Uniform Resource Locator is basically just an address for a file that can be given to a browser. It starts with a protocol type (such as http, ftp, or gopher) and is followed by a colon, machine name, and file name in UNIX style. Optionally an octothorpe character "#" and and arguments will follow the file name; this can be used to further define position within a page and perform a few other tricks. Similar to but less general than a URI. URN A Uniform Resource Name is basically just a unique address for almost any type of resource unlike a URL it will probably not resolve with a browser. USB A really fast type of serial port that offers many of the best features of SCSI without the price. Faster than many types of parallel port, a single USB port is capable of chaining many devices without the need of a terminator. USB is much slower (but somewhat less expensive) than FireWire. uucode The point of uucode is to allow 8-bit binary data to be transferred through the more common 7-bit ASCII channels (most especially e-mail). The facilities for dealing with uucoded files exist for many different machine types, and the most common programs are called "uuencode" for encoding the original binary file into a 7-bit file and "uudecode" for restoring the original binary file from the encoded one. Sometimes different uuencode and uudecode programs will work in subtly different manners causing annoying compatibility problems. Bcode was invented to provide the same service as uucode but to maintain a tighter standard. variable width As applied to a font, variable width means that different characters will have different widths as appropriate. For example, an "i" will take up much less space than an "m". The opposite of variable width is fixed width. The terms "proportional width" and "proportionally spaced" mean the same thing as variable width. Some common variable width fonts include Times, Helvetica, and Bookman. VAX The VAX is a computer platform developed by Digital. Its plural is VAXen. VAXen are large expensive machines that were once quite popular in large businesses; today modern UNIX workstations have all the capability of VAXen but take up much less space. Their OS is called VMS. vector This term has two common meanings. The first is in the geometric sense: a vector defines a direction and magnitude. The second concerns the formatting of fonts and images. If a font is a vector font or an image is a vector image, it is defined as lines of relative size and direction rather than as collections of pixels (the method used in bitmapped fonts and images). This makes it easier to change the size of the font or image, but puts a bigger load on the device that has to display the font or image. The term "outline font" means the same thing as vector font. Veronica & Veronica2 Although traditionally written as a proper name, Veronica is actually an acronym for "very easy rodent-oriented netwide index to computerized archives", where the "rodent" refers to gopher. The acronym was obviously a little forced to go along with the pre-existing (and now largely unused) Archie, in order to have a little fun with a comic book reference. Regardless, Veronica (or these days more likely Veronica2) is essentially a search engine for gopher resources. VIC-20 The Commodore VIC-20 computer sold millions of units and is generally considered to have been the first affordable home computer. It features a ROM-based BASIC and uses it as a default "OS". It is based on the 65xx family of processors. VIC (in case you are wondering) can stand for either video interface c or video interface computer. The VIC-20 is the precursor to the C64/128. virtual machine A virtual machine is a machine completely defined and implemented in software rather than hardware. It is often referred to as a "runtime environment"; code compiled for such a machine is typically called bytecode. virtual memory This is a scheme by which disk space is made to substitute for the more expensive RAM space. Using it will often enable a comptuer to do things it could not do without it, but it will also often result in an overall slowing down of the system. The concept of swap space is very similar. virtual reality Virtual reality (often called VR for short) is generally speaking an attempt to provide more natural, human interfaces to software. It can be as simple as a pseudo 3D interface or as elaborate as an isolated room in which the computer can control the user's senses of vision, hearing, and even smell and touch. virus A virus is a program that will seek to duplicate itself in memory and on disks, but in a subtle way that will not immediately be noticed. A computer on the same network as an infected computer or that uses an infected disk (even a floppy) or that downloads and runs an infected program can itself become infected. A virus can only spread to computers of the same platform. For example, on a network consisting of a WinTel box, a Mac, and a Linux box, if one machine acquires a virus the other two will probably still be safe. Note also that different platforms have different general levels of resistance; UNIX machines are almost immune, Win '95 / '98 / ME / XP is quite vulnerable, and most others lie somewhere in between. VMS The industrial strength OS that runs on VAXen. VoIP VoIP means "Voice over IP" and it is quite simply a way of utilizing the Internet (or even in some cases intranets) for telephone conversations. The primary motivations for doing so are cost and convenience as VoIP is significantly less expensive than typical telephone long distance packages, plus one high speed Internet connection can serve for multiple phone lines. VRML A Virtual Reality Modeling Language file is used to represent VR objects. It has essentially been superceded by X3D. W3C The World Wide Web Consortium (usually abbreviated W3C) is a non-profit, advisory body that makes suggestions on the future direction of the World Wide Web, HTML, CSS, and browsers. Waba An extremely lightweight subset of Java optimized for use on PDAs. WebDAV WebDAV stands for Web-based Distributed Authoring and Versioning, and is designed to provide a way of editing Web-based resources in place. It serves as a more modern (and often more secure) replacement for FTP in many cases. WebTV A WebTV box hooks up to an ordinary television set and displays web pages. It will not display them as well as a dedicated computer. window manager A window manager is a program that acts as a graphical go-between for a user and an OS. It provides a GUI for the OS. Some OSes incorporate the window manager into their own internal code, but many do not for reasons of efficiency. Some OSes partially make the division. Some common true window managers include CDE (Common Desktop Environment), GNOME, KDE, Aqua, OpenWindows, Motif, FVWM, Sugar, and Enlightenment. Some common hybrid window managers with OS extensions include Windows ME, Windows 98, Windows 95, Windows 3.1, OS/2 and GEOS. Windows '95 Windows '95 is currently the second most popular variant of MS-Windows. It was designed to be the replacement Windows 3.1 but has not yet done so completely partly because of suspected security problems but even more because it is not as lightweight and will not work on all the machines that Windows 3.1 will. It is more capable than Windows 3.1 though and now has excellent driver support and more games available for it than any other platform. It is made to run on top of MS-DOS and will not do much of anything if MS-DOS is not on the system. It is thus not strictly an OS per se, but nor is it a true window manager either; rather the combination of MS-DOS and Windows '95 result in a full OS with GUI. It is partially multitasking but has a much greater chance of crashing than Windows NT does (or probably even Mac OS) if faced with a buggy program. Windows '95 runs only on x86 based machines. Currently Windows '95 has several Y2K issues, some of which have patches that can be downloaded for free, and some of which do not yet have fixes at all. Windows '98 Windows '98 is quite possibly the second most popular form of MS-Windows, in spite of the fact that its official release is currently a point of legal debate with at least nineteen states, the federal government, and a handful of foreign countries as it has a few questionable features that might restrict the novice computer user and/or unfairly compete with other computer companies. It also has some specific issues with the version of Java that comes prepackaged with it that has never been adequately fixed, and it still has several Y2K issues, most of which have patches that can be downloaded for free (in fact, Microsoft guarantees that it will work properly through 2000 with the proper patches), but some of which do not yet have fixes at all (it won't work properly through 2001 at this point). In any case, it was designed to replace Windows '95. Windows 2000 Windows 2000 was the intended replacement for Windows NT and in that capacity received relatively lukewarm support. Being based on Windows NT, it inherits some of its driver support problems. Originally it was also supposed to replace Windows '98, but Windows ME was made to do that instead, and the merger between Windows NT and Windows '98 was postponed until Windows XP. Windows 3.1 Windows 3.1 remains a surprisingly popular variant of MS-Windows. It is lighter weight than either Windows '95 or Windows NT (but not lighter weight than GEOS) but less capable than the other two. It is made to run on top of MS-DOS and will not do much of anything if MS-DOS is not on the system. It is thus not strictly an OS per se, but nor is it a true window manager, either; rather the combination of MS-DOS and Windows 3.1 result in a full OS with GUI. Its driver support is good, but its game selection is limited. Windows 3.1 runs only on x86 based machines. It has some severe Y2K issues that may or may not be fixed. Windows CE Windows CE is the lightweight variant of MS-Windows. It offers the general look and feel of Windows '95 but is targetted primarily for hand-held devices, PDAs, NCs, and embedded devices. It does not have all the features of either Windows '95 or Windows NT and is very different from Windows 3.1. In particular, it will not run any software made for any of the other versions of MS-Windows. Special versions of each program must be made. Furthermore, there are actually a few slightly different variants of Windows CE, and no variant is guaranteed to be able to run software made specifically for another one. Driver support is also fairly poor for all types, and few games are made for it. Windows CE will run on a few different processor types, including the x86 and several different processors dedicated to PDAs, embedded systems, and hand-held devices. Windows ME Windows ME is yet another flavor of MS-Windows (specifically the planned replacement for Windows '98). Windows ME currently runs only on the x86 processor. Windows NT Windows NT is the industrial-strength variant of MS-Windows. Current revisions offer the look and feel of Windows '95 and older revisions offer the look and feel of Windows 3.1. It is the most robust flavor of MS-Windows and is fully multitasking. It is also by far the most expensive flavor of MS-Windows and has far less software available for it than Windows '95 or '98. In particular, do not expect to play many games on a Windows NT machine, and expect some difficulty in obtaining good drivers. Windows NT will run on a few different processor types, including the x86, the Alpha, and the PowerPC. Plans are in place to port Windows NT to the Merced when it becomes available. Windows Vista Windows Vista is the newest flavor of MS-Windows (specifically the planned replacement for Windows XP). Windows Vista (originally known as Longhorn) currently only runs on x86 processors. Windows XP Windows XP is yet another flavor of MS-Windows (specifically the planned replacement for both Windows ME and Windows 2000). Windows XP currently only runs on the x86 processors. Windows XP is currently the most popular form of MS-Windows. WinTel An x86 based system running some flavor of MS-Windows. workstation Depending upon whom you ask, a workstation is either an industrial strength desktop computer or its own category above the desktops. Workstations typically have some flavor of UNIX for their OS, but there has been a recent trend to call high-end Windows NT and Windows 2000 machines workstations, too. WYSIWYG What you see is what you get; an adjective applied to a program that attempts to exactly represent printed output on the screen. Related to WYSIWYM but quite different. WYSIWYM What you see is what you mean; an adjective applied to a program that does not attempt to exactly represent printed output on the screen, but rather defines how things are used and so will adapt to different paper sizes, etc. Related to WYSIWYG but quite different. X-Face X-Faces are small monochrome images embedded in headers for both provides a e-mail and news messages. Better mail and news applications will display them (sometimes automatically, sometimes only per request). X-Windows X-Windows provides a GUI for most UNIX systems, but can also be found as an add-on library for other computers. Numerous window managers run on top of it. It is often just called "X". X3D Extensible 3D Graphics data is an XML file that is used to hold three-dimensional graphical data. It is the successor to VRML. x86 The x86 series of processors includes the Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Celeron, and Athlon as well as the 786, 686, 586, 486, 386, 286, 8086, 8088, etc. It is an exceptionally popular design (by far the most popular CISC series) in spite of the fact that even its fastest model is significantly slower than the assorted RISC processors. Many different OSes run on machines built around x86 processors, including MS-DOS, Windows 3.1, Windows '95, Windows '98, Windows ME, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows CE, Windows XP, GEOS, Linux, Solaris, OpenBSD, NetBSD, FreeBSD, Mac OS X, OS/2, BeOS, CP/M, etc. A couple different companies produce x86 processors, but the bulk of them are produced by Intel. It is expected that this processor will eventually be completely replaced by the Merced, but the Merced development schedule is somewhat behind. Also, it should be noted that the Pentium III processor has stirred some controversy by including a "fingerprint" that will enable individual computer usage of web pages etc. to be accurately tracked. XBL An XML Binding Language document is used to associate executable content with an XML tag. It is itself an XML file, and is used most frequently (although not exclusively) in conjunction with XUL. XHTML The Extensible Hypertext Mark-up Language is essentially a cleaner, stricter version of HTML. It is a proper subset of XML. XML The Extensible Mark-up Language is a subset of SGML and a superset of XHTML. It is used for numerous things including (among many others) RSS and RDF. XML-RPC XML-RPC provides a fairly lightweight means by which one computer can execute a program on a co-operating machine across a network like the Internet. It is based on XML and is used for everything from fetching stock quotes to checking weather forcasts. XO The energy-efficient, kid-friendly laptop produced by the OLPC project. It runs Sugar for its window manager and Linux for its OS. It sports numerous built-in features like wireless networking, a video camera & microphone, a few USB ports, and audio in/out jacks. It comes with several educational applications (which it refers to as "Activities"), most of which are written in Python. XSL The Extensible Stylesheet Language is like CSS for XML. It provides a means of describing how an XML resource should be displayed. XSLT XSL Transformations are used to transform one type of XML into another. It is a component of XSL that can be (and often is) used independently. XUL An XML User-Interface Language document is used to define a user interface for an application using XML to specify the individual controls as well as the overall layout. Y2K The general class of problems resulting from the wrapping of computers' internal date timers is given this label in honor of the most obvious occurrence -- when the year changes from 1999 to 2000 (abbreviated in some programs as 99 to 00 indicating a backwards time movement). Contrary to popular belief, these problems will not all manifest themselves on the first day of 2000, but will in fact happen over a range of dates extending out beyond 2075. A computer that does not have problems prior to the beginning of 2001 is considered "Y2K compliant", and a computer that does not have problems within the next ten years or so is considered for all practical purposes to be "Y2K clean". Whether or not a given computer is "clean" depends upon both its OS and its applications (and in some unfortunate cases, its hardware). The quick rundown on common home / small business machines (roughly from best to worst) is that: * All Mac OS systems are okay until at least the year 2040. By that time a patch should be available. * All BeOS systems are okay until the year 2040 (2038?). By that time a patch should be available. * Most UNIX versions are either okay or currently have free fixes available (and typically would not have major problems until 2038 or later in any case). * NewtonOS has a problem with the year 2010, but has a free fix available. * Newer AmigaOS systems are okay; older ones have a problem with the year 2000 but have a free fix available. They also have a year 2077 problem that does not yet have a free fix. * Some OS/2 systems have a year 2000 problem, but free fixes are available. * All CP/M versions have a year 2000 problem, but free fixes are available. * PC-DOS has a year 2000 problem, but a free fix is available. * DR-DOS has a year 2000 problem, but a free fix is available. * Different versions of GEOS have different problems ranging from minor year 2000 problems (with fixes in the works) to larger year 2080 problems (that do not have fixes yet). The only problem that may not have a fix in time is the year 2000 problem on the Apple ][ version of GEOS; not only was that version discontinued, unlike the other GEOS versions it no longer has a parent company to take care of it. * All MS-Windows versions (except possibly Windows 2000 and Windows ME) have multiple problems with the year 2000 and/or 2001, most of which have free fixes but some of which still lack free fixes as of this writing. Even new machines off the shelf that are labelled "Y2K Compliant" usually are not unless additional software is purchased and installed. Basically WinNT and WinCE can be properly patched, Windows '98 can be patched to work properly through 2000 (possibly not 2001), Windows '95 can be at least partially patched for 2000 (but not 2001) but is not being guaranteed by Microsoft, and Windows 3.1 cannot be fully patched. * MS-DOS has problems with at least the year 2000 (and probably more). None of its problems have been addressed as of this writing. Possible fixes are to change over to either PC-DOS or DR-DOS. Results vary wildly for common applications, so it is better to be safe than sorry and check out the ones that you use. It should also be noted that some of the biggest expected Y2K problems will be at the two ends of the computer spectrum with older legacy mainframes (such as power some large banks) and some of the various tiny embedded computers (such as power most burgler alarms and many assorted appliances). Finally, it should also be mentioned that some older WinTel boxes and Amigas may have Y2K problems in their hardware requiring a card addition or replacement. Z-Machine A virtual machine optimized for running interactive fiction, interactive tutorials, and other interactive things of a primarily textual nature. Z-Machines have been ported to almost every platform in use today. Z-machine bytecode is usually called Z-code. The Glulx virtual machine is of the same idea but somewhat more modern in concept. Z80 The Z80 series of processors is a CISC design and is not being used in too many new stand-alone computer systems, but can still be occasionally found in embedded systems. It is the most popular processor for CP/M machines. Zaurus The Zaurus is a brand of PDA. It is generally in between a Palm and a Newton in capability. zip There are three common zips in the computer world that are completely different from one another. One is a type of removable removable disk slightly larger (physically) and vastly larger (capacity) than a floppy. The second is a group of programs used for running interactive fiction. The third is a group of programs used for compression. Zoomer The Zoomer is a type of PDA. Zoomers all use GEOS for their OS and are / were produced by numerous different companies and are thus found under numerous different names. The "classic" Zoomers are known as the Z-7000, the Z-PDA, and the GRiDpad and were made by Casio, Tandy, and AST respectively. Newer Zoomers include HP's OmniGo models, Hyundai's Gulliver (which may not have actually been released to the general public), and Nokia's Communicator line of PDA / cell phone hybrids.

A * ABEND — this term is short for abnormal end, and refers to a program stopping prematurely due to a bug. It is more commonly associated with mainframe programs, as this is its origin. Another purported origin of the term is that ABEND is called "abend" because it is what system operators do to the computer late on Friday when they want to call it day, and hence is from the German word "Abend" meaning "Evening". This is untrue. * Ada programming language — named after Ada Lovelace, who is considered by many to be the first programmer. * Apache — the web server from the Apache Software Foundation. Originally this name was chosen by an author just because it was a catchy name. Soon enough, it was suggested that the name was indeed appropriate, because its founders got started by applying patches to code written for NCSA's httpd daemon. The result was "a patchy" server. * awk — a computer pattern/action language, name made up of the surnames of its authors Alfred V. Aho, Peter J. Weinberger, and Brian W. Kernighan [edit] B * B programming language — B was created by Ken Thompson as a revision of the BCPL programming language. * biff — a command to turn on asynchronous email notification on Unix systems. Actually named after a dog at U.C. Berkeley, who would bark when mail was delivered. (The dog belonged to Heidi Stettner, validation of this from Eric Cooper.) * bit — Claude E. Shannon first used the word bit in a 1948 paper. Shannon's bit is a portmanteau word for binary digit (or possibly binary digit). He attributed its origin to John W. Tukey. See [1]. * Bon programming language — Bon was created by Ken Thompson and named after his wife Bonnie. However according to an encyclopedia quotation in Bon's manual, it was named after a religion (likely Tibetan) whose rituals involve the murmuring of magic formulas. [2] * booting or bootstrapping — The term booting or bootstrapping a computer was inspired by the story of the Baron Munchhausen where he pulls himself out of a swamp by the straps on his boots. * Bug — a fault in a computer program which prevents it from working correctly. The term is often (but erroneously) credited to Grace Hopper. In 1946, she joined the Harvard Faculty at the Computation Laboratory where she traced an error in the Harvard Mark II to a moth trapped in a relay. This bug was carefully removed and taped to the log book. (See picture). However, use of the word "bug" to describe defects in mechanical systems dates back to at least the 1870s, perhaps especially in Scotland. Thomas Edison, for one, used the term in his notebooks. * byte — the term was coined by Werner Buchholz in 1956 during the early design phase for the IBM Stretch computer. It was coined by mutating the word bite so it would not be accidentally misspelled as bit. A byte is a grouping of 8 bits. [edit] C * C programming language — Dennis Ritchie improved on the B programming language and called it New B. He later called it C. (See also D). * C++ — an object-oriented programming language and a successor to the C programming language. C++ creator Bjarne Stroustrup called his new language "C with Classes" and then "new C". Because of which the original C began to be called "old C" which was considered insulting to the C community. At this time Rick Mascitti suggested the name C++ as a successor to C. In C the '++' operator increments the value of the variable it is appended to, thus C++ would increment the value of C. * Cookie — A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server. The term was coined by web browser programmer Lou Montulli after the term "magic cookies" used by Unix programmers. [edit] D–F * D -- Walter Bright designed D as an improved C, avoiding many of the design problems of C (eg, extensive pointer manipulation, unenforced array boundaries, ...). * Daemon — a process in an operating system that runs in the background. It is falsely considered an acronym for Disk And Execution MONitor. According to the original team that introduced the concept, "the use of the word daemon was inspired by the Maxwell's Daemon of physics and thermodynamics (an imaginary agent which helped sort molecules with differing velocities and worked tirelessly in the background)" thus evading the Laws of Thermodynamics. [3] . The earliest use appears to have been in the phrase "daemon of Socrates", which meant his "guiding or indwelling spirit; his genius", also a pre-Christian equivalent of the "Guardian Angel", or, alternatively, a demigod (who bears only an etymological connection to the word "demon"). The term was embraced, and possibly popularized, by the Unix operating systems which supported multiple background processes: various local (and later Internet) services were provided by daemons. This is exemplified by the BSD mascot, John Lasseter's drawing of a friendly imp (copyright Marshall Kirk McKusick). Thus, a daemon is something that works magically without anyone being much aware of it. Note that an alternative spelling is 'daemon', which is sometimes slightly differentiated in purpose from 'demon'. * Debian — a Linux distribution, a portmanteau of project creator Ian Murdock's name and that of his girlfriend (now ex-wife) Debra. * Emacs — a text editor, acronym for Editor MACroS * finger — Unix command that provides information about users logged into a system Les Earnest wrote the finger program in 1971 to solve provide users who wanted information about other users on a network or system. Prior to the finger program, the only way to get this information was with a who program that showed IDs and terminal line numbers for logged—in users; people used to run their fingers down the "who" list. Earnest named his program after this phenomenon. * Foobar — from the U.S. Army slang acronym, FUBAR Both foo and bar are used as metasyntatic variables. [edit] G * Gentoo — a Linux distribution, named after a variety of penguin, the universal Linux mascot. * GNU — a project with an original goal of creating a free operating system. Gnu is also a species of African antelope. The founder of the GNU project Richard Stallman liked the name because of the humour associated with its pronunciation and was also influenced by the song The Gnu Song [4] , by Flanders and Swann which is a song sung by a gnu. It is also an early example of a recursive acronym -- "GNU's Not Unix". * Google — search engine on the web. The name started as an exaggerated boast about the amount of information the search-engine would be able to search. It was originally named 'Googol', a word for the number represented by 1 followed by 100 zeros. The word was originally invented by Milton Sirotta, nephew of mathematician Edward Kasner in 1938 during a discussion of large numbers and exponential notation. * Gopher — an early distributed document search and retrieval network protocol on the Internet The source of the name is claimed to be three-fold: first, that it is used to "go-for" information; second, that it does so through a menu of links analogous to gopher holes; and third, that the mascot of the protocol authors' organization, the University of Minnesota, is Goldy the Gopher. * grep — a Unix command line utility The name comes from a command in the Unix text editor ed that takes the form g/re/p meaning search globally for a regular expression and print lines where instances are found. "Grep" like "Google" is often used as a verb, meaning "to search". [edit] H–K * Hotmail — free email service, now part of MSN. Founder Jack Smith got the idea of accessing e-mail via the web from a computer anywhere in the world. When Sabeer Bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail service, he tried all kinds of names ending in 'mail' and finally settled for Hotmail as it included the letters "HTML" — the markup language used to write web pages. It was initially referred to as HoTMaiL with selective upper casing. * i18n — short for internationalization. "18" is for the number of letters between the i and the n. The term l10n (for localization) has failed to catch on to the same degree, but is used by some. * ICQ — an instant messaging service. ICQ is not an acronym. It is a play on the phrase "I seek you" (similar to CQ in ham radio usage). * ID10T - pronounced "ID ten T" - is a code frequently used by a customer service representative (CSR) to annotate their notes and identify the source of a problem as the person who is reporting the problem rather than the system being blamed. This is a thinly veiled reference to the CSR's opinion that the person reporting the problem is an IDIOT. Example: Problem reported caused by ID10T, no resolution possible. See also PEBKAC. * Jakarta Project — a project constituted by Sun and Apache to create a web server for Java servlets and JSPs. Jakarta was the name of the conference room at Sun where most of the meetings between Sun and Apache took place. The conference room was most likely named after Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, which is located on the northwest coast of the island of Java. * Java — programming language Originally called "D", but with the connotation of a near-failing mark on a report card the language was renamed Oak by Java-creator James Gosling, from the tree that stood outside his window. The programming team at Sun had to look for a substitute name as there was already another programming language called Oak. "Java" was selected from a list of suggestions, primarily because it is a popular slang term for coffee, especially that grown on the island of Java. As the programmers drank a lot of coffee, this seemed an appropriate name. Many people mistakenly think that Java is indeed an acronym and spell it JAVA. When one of the original Java programmers from Sun was asked to define JAVA he said it stood for nothing, but if it must stand for something: "Just Another Vague Acronym." * JavaScript — programming language (is NOT Java) JavaScript was originally developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape under the name Mocha, which was later renamed to LiveScript, and finally to JavaScript.[1] The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape adding support for Java technology in its Netscape Navigator web browser. JavaScript was first introduced and deployed in the Netscape browser version 2.0B3 in December 1995. The naming has caused confusion, giving the impression that the language is a spin-off of Java, and it has been characterized by many as a marketing ploy by Netscape to give JavaScript the cachet of what was then the hot new web-programming language.[2][3] * Job * Kerberos — a computer network authentication protocol that is used by both Windows 2000 and Windows XP as their default authentication method. When created by programmers at MIT in the 1970s, they wanted a name that suggested high security for the project, so they named it after the Greek mythology character kerberos, (also spelled Cerberus), the mythical three-headed canine guarding Hades' gates. The reference to Greek mythology is most likely because Kerberos was developed as part of Project Athena. [edit] L * Linux — an operating system kernel, and the common name for the operating system which uses it. Linux creator Linus Torvalds originally used the Minix operating system on his computer, didn't like it, liked MS-DOS less, and started a project to develop an operating system that would address the problems of Minix. Hence the working name was Linux (Linus' Minix). Originally, however, Linus had planned to have it named Freax (free + freak + x). His friend Ari Lemmke encouraged Linus to upload it to a network so it could be easily downloaded. Ari gave Linus a directory called linux on his FTP server, as he did not like the name Freax. * Lisa — A personal computer designed at Apple Computer during the early 1980s. Apple stated that LISA was an acronym for Local Integrated Software Architecture; however, it is often inferred that the machine was originally named after the daughter of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, and that this acronym was invented later to fit the name. Accordingly, two humorous suggestions for expanding the acronym included Let's Invent Some Acronym and Let's Invent Silly Acronyms. * Liveware - a term meaning computer personnel. It plays on the terms software and hardware. Coined in 1966, the word indicates that sometimes the computer problem is not with the computer itself, but with the user. * Lotus Software — Lotus founder Mitch Kapor got the name for his company from 'The Lotus Position' ('Padmasana' in Sanskrit). Kapor used to be a teacher of Transcendental Meditation technique as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. [edit] M * Apple Macintosh, Mac — computer system from Apple Computer. from McIntosh, a popular type of apple. Jef Raskin, a computer scientist, is credited with this naming. * Mac OS — The operating system used in the Macintosh computer system. from "Mac", a shortened form of Macintosh and a commonly used name for the Macintosh computer system (see elsewhere on this page), and "OS", the common abbreviation for "operating system". * Memoization — the process of automatically modifying functions to include caching behavior. Coined by Donald Michie in his 1968 paper Memo Functions and Machine Learning. * Mozilla — a web browser and successor to Netscape Communicator. When Marc Andreessen, founder of Netscape, created a browser to replace the Mosaic browser, it was internally named Mozilla (Mosaic-Killer, Godzilla). When Netscape's Navigator source code was made open source, Mozilla was the internal name for the open source version. [edit] N–O * Nerd — A colloquial term for a computer person, especially an obsessive, singularly focused one. Earlier spelling of the term is "Nurd" and the original spelling is "Knurd", but the pronunciation has remained the same. The term originated at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in the late 1940s. Students who partied, and rarely studied were called "Drunks", while the opposite — students who never partied and always studied were "Knurd" ("Drunk" spelled backwards). The term was also (independently) used in a Dr. Seuss book, and on the TV show Happy Days, giving it international popularity. * Novell NetWare — a network operating system from Novell. Novell, Inc. was originally Novell Data Systems co-founded by George Canova. The name was suggested by George's wife who mistakenly thought that "Novell" meant "new" in French. * Oracle — a relational database management system (RDBMS). Larry Ellison, Ed Oates and Bob Miner were working on a consulting project for the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). The code name for the project was called Oracle (the CIA evidently saw this as a system that would give answers to all questions). The project was designed to use the newly written SQL database language from IBM. The project eventually was terminated but they decided to finish what they started and bring it to the world. They kept the name Oracle and created the RDBMS engine. [edit] P * Pac-Man — a video arcade game The term comes from paku paku which is a Japanese onomatopoeia (written version of a noise) used for noisy eating; similar to chomp chomp. The game was released in Japan with the name Puck-Man, and released in the US with the name Pac-Man, fearing that kids may deface a Puck-Man cabinet by changing the P to an F. * PCMCIA — the standards body for PC card and ExpressCard, expansion card form factors. The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association is an international standards body that defines and promotes standards for expansion devices such as modems and external hard disk drives to be connected to notebook computers. Over time, the acronym PCMCIA has been used to refer to the PC card form factor used on notebook computers. A twist on the acronym is People Can't Memorize Computer Industry Acronyms. * PEBKAC - an acronym for "Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair", which is a code frequently used by a customer service representative (CSR) to annotate their notes and identify the source of a problem as the person who is reporting the problem rather than the system being blamed. This is a thinly veiled reference to the CSR's opinion that the person reporting the problem is the problem. Example: PEBKAC, no resolution possible. See also ID10T. * Pentium — Microprocessor from Intel The fifth microprocessor in the 80x86 series. It would have been called i586 or 80586, but Intel decided to name it Pentium (penta = five) after it lost a trademark infringement lawsuit against AMD (the judgment was that numbers like "286", "386", and "486" could not be trademarked). According to Intel, Pentium conveys a meaning of strength, like titanium. Since some early Pentium chips contained a mathematical precision error, it has been jokingly suggested that the reason for the chip being named Pentium rather than 586 was that Intel chips would calculate 486 + 100 = 585.99999948. * Perl — an interpreted scripting language Perl was originally named Pearl, after the "pearl of great price" of Matthew 13:46. Larry Wall, the creator of Perl, wanted to give the language a short name with positive connotations and claims to have looked at (and rejected) every three- and four-letter word in the dictionary. He even thought of naming it after his wife Gloria. Before the language's official release Wall discovered that there was already a programming language named Pearl, and changed the spelling of the name. Although the original manuals suggested the backronyms "Practical Extraction and Report Language" and "Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister", these were intended humorously. * PHP — a server-side scripting language Originally called "Personal Home Page Tools" by creator Rasmus Lerdorf, it was rewritten by developers Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans who gave it the recursive name "PHP Hypertext Preprocessor". Lerdorf currently insists the name should not be thought of as standing for anything, for he selected "Personal Home Page" as the name when he did not foresee PHP evolving into a general-purpose programming language. * Pine — e-mail client Acronym for "Program for Internet News & Email". It is also a recursive acronym for "Pine Is Not Elm" (in reference to Elm, another email client) * Ping — computer network tool used to detect hosts The author of ping, Mike Muuss, named it after the pulses of sound made by a sonar called a "ping". Later Dave Mills provided the backronym "Packet Internet Groper". * PKZIP — compression or zipping tool. It was written by Phil Katz and stands for Phil Katz's ZIP program. * Python programming language — an interpreted scripting language. Named after the television series Monty Python's Flying Circus. [edit] R * Radio button — a GUI widget used for making selections. Radio buttons got their name from the preset buttons in radio receivers. When one used to select preset stations on a radio receiver physically instead of electronically, depressing one preset button would pop out whichever other button happened to be pushed in. * Red Hat Linux — a Linux distribution from Red Hat. Company founder Marc Ewing was given the Cornell lacrosse team cap (with red and white stripes) while at college by his grandfather. People would turn to him to solve their problems, and he was referred to as "that guy in the red hat". He lost the cap and had to search for it desperately. The manual of the beta version of Red Hat Linux had an appeal to readers to return his Red Hat if found by anyone. * RSA — an asymmetric algorithm for public key cryptography Based on the surnames of the authors of this algorithm — Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman. [edit] S * Samba software — a free implementation of Microsoft's networking protocol. The name samba comes from inserting two vowels into the name of the standard protocol that Microsoft Windows network file system use, called SMB (Server Message Block). The author searched a dictionary using grep for words containing S M and B in that order; the only matches were Samba and Salmonberry. * SCO UNIX — a UNIX variant from SCO. The company was called "Santa Cruz Operation", as its office was in Santa Cruz, California. * sed — stands for stream editor, used for textual transformation of a sequential stream of text data. It is modelled after the ed editor. * shareware — coined by Bob Wallace to describe his word processor PC-Write in early 1983. Prior to this Jim Knopf (also known as Jim Button) and Andrew Fluegelman called their distributed software "user supported software" and "freeware" respectively, but it was Wallace's terminology that stuck. * Slashdot — a technology oriented weblog While registering the domain, Slashdot-creator Rob Malda wanted to make the URL silly, and unpronounceable ("http://slashdot.org " gets pronounced as "h t t p colon slash slash slash dot dot org") Alternatively, many say that the Slashdot(/.) name refers to the *NIX command line interpretation of the "root" directory, or a play on the website being the "root" of all tech news. * Sosumi — one of the system sounds introduced in Apple Computer's System 7 operating system in 1991. Apple Computer had a long litigation history with Apple Records, the Beatles' recording company. Fearing that the ability to record musical sound would cause yet more legal action, the Apple legal department allegedly ordered the sound to be renamed from its original, musical name. So the developers changed the name to Sosumi ("So sue me"). Depending on who was asked, they quipped that it was Japanese for either "absence of sound" or "a light pleasing tone". * Spam — unwanted repetitious messages, such as unsolicited bulk e-mail The term spam is derived from the Monty Python SPAM sketch, set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes SPAM luncheon meat. While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu. Soon, a chorus of Vikings join in with a song: "SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM", over and over again, drowning out all conversation. * SPIM — a simulator for a virtual machine closely resembling the instruction set of MIPS (computer manufacturer) processors, is simply MIPS spelled backwards. MIPS stands for Millions of Instructions Per Second, from way back when that was something to boast of. In recent time, SPIM has also come to mean SPam sent over Instant Messaging. * Swing — a graphics library for Java. Swing was the code-name of the project that developed the new graphic components (the successor of AWT). It was named after swing, a style of dance band jazz that was popularized in the 1930s and unexpectedly revived in the 1990s. Although an unofficial name for the components, it gained popular acceptance with the use of the word in the package names for the Swing API, which begin with javax.swing. [edit] T–V * Task * Tomcat — a web server from the Jakarta Project Tomcat was the code-name for the JSDK 2.1 project inside Sun. Tomcat started off as a servlet specification implementation by James Duncan Davidson who was a software architect at Sun. Davidson had initially hoped that the project would be made open-source, and since most open-source projects had O'Reilly books on them with an animal on the cover, he wanted to name the project after an animal. He came up with Tomcat since he reasoned the animal represented something that could take care of and fend for itself. * Troff — a document processing system for Unix Troff stands for "typesetter roff", although many people have speculated that it actually means "Times roff" because of the use of the Times font family in troff by default. Troff has its origins from Roff, an earlier formatting program, whose name is a contraction of "run off". * Trojan horse (computing) — a malicious program that is disguised as legitimate software. The term is derived from the classical myth of the Trojan Horse. Analogously, a Trojan horse appears innocuous (or even to be a gift), but in fact is a vehicle for bypassing security. * TWAIN — a standard for acquiring data from image scanners Strictly speaking, TWAIN is not an acronym, but has often been referred to as an acronym for "Technology Without An Intelligent Name". * Ubuntu Linux — a Debian-based Linux distribution sponsored by Canonical Ltd. The name derives from ubuntu, a South African ideology. * Unix — an operating system. When Bell Labs pulled out of the MULTICS (MULTiplexed Information and Computing System) project, which was originally a joint Bell Labs/GE/MIT project, Ken Thompson of Bell Labs, soon joined by Dennis Ritchie, wrote a simpler version of the operating system for a spare DEC minicomputer, allegedly found in a corridor. They needed an OS to run the game Space War which had been compiled under MULTICS. The new OS was called UNICS — UNIplexed operating and Computing System by Brian Kernighan. An alternative spelling was Eunuchs, it being a sort of 'reduced' MULTICS. It was later shortened to Unix. * vi — a text editor, initialism for visual, a command in the ex editor which helped users to switch to the visual mode from the ex mode. the first version was written by Bill Joy at UC Berkeley. * Vim — a text editor, acronym for Vi improved after Vim added several features over the vi editor. Vim however had started out as an imitation of Vi and was expanded as Vi imitation. * Virus — a piece of program code that spreads by making copies of itself. The term virus was first used in print by Fred Cohen in his 1984 paper "Experiments with Computer Viruses", where he credits Len Adleman with coining it. Although Cohen's use of virus may have been the first academic use, it had been in the common parlance long before that. A mid-1970s science fiction novel by David Gerrold, When H.A.R.L.I.E. was One, includes a description of a fictional computer program called VIRUS that worked just like a virus (and was countered by a program called ANTIBODY). The term "computer virus" also appears in the comic book "Uncanny X-Men" No. 158, published in 1982. A computer virus's basic function is to insert its own executable code into that of other existing executable files, literally making it the electronic equivalent to the biological virus, the basic function of which is to insert its genetic information into that of the invaded cell, forcing the cell to reproduce the virus. [edit] W–Z * Wiki or WikiWiki — a hypertext document collection or the collaborative software used to create it. Coined by Ward Cunningham, the creator of the wiki concept, who named them for the "wiki wiki" or "quick" shuttle buses at Honolulu Airport. Wiki wiki was the first Hawaiian term he learned on his first visit to the islands. The airport counter agent directed him to take the wiki wiki bus between terminals. * Worm — a self-replicating program, similar to a virus. The name 'worm' was taken from a 1970s science fiction novel by John Brunner entitled The Shockwave Rider. The book describes programs known as "tapeworms" which spread through a network for the purpose of deleting data. Researchers writing an early paper on experiments in distributed computing noted the similarities between their software and the program described by Brunner, and adopted that name. * WYSIWYG - describes a system in which content during editing appears very similar to the final product. Acronym for What You See Is What You Get, the phrase was originated by a newsletter published by Arlene and Jose Ramos, called WYSIWYG. It was created for the emerging Pre-Press industry going electronic in the late 1970s. * X Window System — a windowing system for computers with bitmap displays X derives its name as a successor to a pre-1983 window system called W (the W Window System). X follows W in the alphabet. * Yahoo! — internet portal and web directory. Yahoo!'s history site says the name is an acronym for "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle", but some remember that in its early days (mid-1990s), when Yahoo! lived on a server called akebono.stanford.edu, it was glossed as "Yet Another Hierarchical Object Organizer." The word "Yahoo!" was originally invented by Jonathan Swift and used in his book Gulliver's Travels. It represents a person who is repulsive in appearance and action and is barely human. Yahoo! founders Jerry Yang and David Filo selected the name because they considered themselves yahoos. * Zip — a file format now also used as a verb to mean compress The file format was created by Phil Katz, and given the name by his friend Robert Mahoney. The compression tool Phil Katz created was called PKZIP. Zip means "speed", and they wanted to imply their product would be faster than ARC and other compression formats of the time.
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[edit] History See also: Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms There are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Possibly the first publicly documented removal of a computer virus in the wild was performed by Bernt Fix in 1987.[4][5] ClamTk 4.08 virus scanner running on Ubuntu 9.04 An antivirus program to counter the Polish MKS vir was released in 1987. Dr. Solomon's Anti-Virus Toolkit, AIDSTEST and AntiVir were released by in 1988. Dr. Ahn Chul Soo (Charles Ahn, founder of AhnLab Inc) in South Korea also released the Anti-Virus software called 'Vaccine ?' in June 10, 1988[citation needed]. By late 1990, nineteen separate antivirus products were available including Norton AntiVirus and McAfee VirusScan.[citation needed] Early contributors to work on computer viruses and countermeasures included Fred Cohen, Peter Tippett, John McAfee and Ahn Chul Soo. Before Internet connectivity was widespread, viruses were typically spread by infected floppy disks. Antivirus software came into use, but was updated relatively infrequently. During this time, virus checkers essentially had to check executable files and the boot sectors of floppy and hard disks. However, as internet usage became common, initially through the use of modems, viruses spread throughout the Internet.[6] Powerful macros used in word processor applications, such as Microsoft Word, presented a further risk. Virus writers started using the macros to write viruses embedded within documents. This meant that computers could now also be at risk from infection by documents with hidden attached macros as programs.[7] Later email programs, in particular Microsoft Outlook Express and Outlook, were vulnerable to viruses embedded in the email body itself. Now, a user's computer could be infected by just opening or previewing a message. This meant that virus checkers had to check many more types of files. As always-on broadband connections became the norm and more and more viruses were released, it became essential to update virus checkers more and more frequently. Even then, a new zero-day virus could become widespread before antivirus companies released an update to protect against it.[8] [edit] Identification methods ClamWin 0.95.1 running on Windows XP There are several methods which antivirus software can use to identify malware. Signature based detection is the most common method. To identify viruses and other malware, antivirus software compares the contents of a file to a dictionary of virus signatures. Because viruses can embed themselves in existing files, the entire file is searched, not just as a whole, but also in pieces.[9] Malicious activity detection is another approach used to identify malware. In this approach, antivirus software monitors the system for suspicious program behavior. If suspicious behavior is detected, the suspect program may be further investigated, using signature based detection or another method listed in this section. This type of detection can be used to identify unknown viruses or variants on existing viruses.[citation needed] Heuristic-based detection, like malicious activity detection, can be used to identify unknown viruses. This can be accomplished in one of two ways: file analysis and file emulation.[citation needed] File analysis is the process of searching a suspect file for virus-like instructions. For example, if a program has instructions to reformat the C drive, the antivirus software might further investigate the file. One downside of this feature is the large amount of computer resources needed to analyse every file, resulting in slow operation.[citation needed] File emulation is another heuristic approach. File emulation involves executing a program in a virtual environment and logging what actions the program performs. Depending on the actions logged, the antivirus software can determine if the program is malicious or not and then carry out the appropriate disinfection actions.[10] [edit] Signature based detection This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) A command-line virus scanner, Clam AV 0.95.2, running a virus signature definition update, scanning a file and identifying a Trojan Traditionally, antivirus software heavily relied upon signatures to identify malware. This can be very effective, but cannot defend against malware unless samples have already been obtained and signatures created. Because of this, signature-based approaches are not effective against new, unknown viruses. When antivirus software scans a file for viruses, it checks the contents of a file against a dictionary of virus signatures. A virus signature is the viral code. If a virus signature is found in a file the antivirus software can resort to some combination of quarantine, repair or deletion. Quarantining a file will make it inaccessible, and is usually the first action antivirus software will take if a malicious file is found. Encrypting the file is a good quarantining technique because it renders the file useless without the encryption key.[citation needed] Sometimes a user wants to save the content of an infected file because viruses can sometimes embed themselves in files, called code injection, and the file may be essential to normal operation. To do this, antivirus software will attempt to repair the file. To do this, the software will try to remove the viral code from the file. Unfortunately, some viruses might damage the file upon injection.[citation needed] If a file repair operation fails, usually the best thing to do is to just delete the file. Deleting the file is necessary if the entire file is infected.[citation needed] This may be necessary in the case of infected ZIP files, or similar "packed" files. Because new viruses are being created each day, the signature-based detection approach requires frequent updates of the virus signature dictionary. To assist the antivirus software companies, the software may allow the user to upload new viruses or variants to the company, allowing the virus to be analyzed and the signature added to the dictionary.[9] Signature-based antivirus software typically examines files when the computer's operating system creates, opens, closes, or e-mails them. In this way it can detect a known virus immediately upon receipt. System administrators can schedule antivirus software to scan all files on the computer's hard disk at a set time and date.[citation needed] Although the signature-based approach can effectively contain virus outbreaks, virus authors have tried to stay a step ahead of such software by writing "oligomorphic", "polymorphic" and, more recently, "metamorphic" viruses, which encrypt parts of themselves or otherwise modify themselves as a method of disguise, so as to not match virus signatures in the dictionary.[11] An emerging technique to deal with malware in general is whitelisting. Rather than looking for only known bad software, this technique prevents execution of all computer code except that which has been previously identified as trustworthy by the system administrator. By following this "default deny" approach, the limitations inherent in keeping virus signatures up to date are avoided. Additionally, computer applications that are unwanted by the system administrator are prevented from executing since they are not on the whitelist. Since organizations often have large quantities of trusted applications, the limitations of adopting this technique rests with the system administrators' ability to properly inventory and maintain the whitelist of trusted applications. Viable implementations of this technique include tools for automating the inventory and whitelist maintenance processes.[citation needed] [edit] Suspicious behavior monitoring This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) The suspicious behavior approach does not attempt to identify known viruses, but instead monitors the behavior of all programs. If one program tries to write data to an executable program, for example, the antivirus software can flag this suspicious behavior, alert a user and ask what to do.[citation needed] The suspicious behavior approach provides protection against zero day viruses that are not yet in the dictionary. However, it can also sound a large number of false positives and users may become desensitized to the warnings. This problem has worsened since 1997, since many more non-malicious program designs came to modify other executablea without regard to this false positive issue. In recent years, however, sophisticated behaviour analysis has emerged, which analyzes processes and calls to the kernel in context before making a decision, which gives it a lower false positive rate than rules-based behavior monitoring.[citation needed] [edit] Heuristics Some more sophisticated antivirus software uses heuristic analysis to identify new malware or variants of known malware. Three methods are used: file analysis, file emulation, and generic signatures.[citation needed] File analysis is the process by which antivirus software will analyze the instructions of a program. Based on the instructions, the software can determine whether or not the program is malicious. For example, if the file contains instructions to delete important system files, the file might be flagged as a virus. While this method is useful for identifying new viruses and variants, it can trigger many false positives.[citation needed] The second heuristic approach is file emulation, which runs the target file in a virtual system environment, separate from the real system environment. The antivirus software would then log what actions the file takes in the virtual environment. If the actions are found to be damaging or malicious, the file may be marked a virus. But again, this method can trigger false positives.[citation needed] Another type of heuristics is generic signatures.[citation needed] Many viruses start as a single infection and through either mutation or refinements by other attackers, can grow into dozens of slightly different strains, called variants. Generic detection refers to the detection and removal of multiple threats using a single virus definition. [12] For example, the Vundo trojan has several family members, depending on the antivirus vendor's classification. Symantec classifies members of the Vundo family into two distinct members, Trojan.Vundo and Trojan.Vundo.B.[13][14] While it may be advantageous to identify a specific virus, it can be quicker to detect a virus family through a generic signature or through an inexact match to an existing signature. Virus researchers find common areas that all viruses in a family share uniquely and can thus create a single generic signature. These signatures often contain non-contiguous code, using wildcard characters where differences lie. These wildcards allow the scanner to detect viruses even if they are padded with extra, meaningless code. [15] Padded code is used to confuse the scanner so it can't recognize the threat. A detection that uses this method is said to be "heuristic detection." [edit] Virus removal tools This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) A virus removal tool is software for removing specific viruses from infected computers. Unlike complete antivirus scanners, they are usually not intended to detect and remove an extensive list of viruses; rather they are designed to remove specific viruses, usually more effectively than normal antivirus software. Sometimes they are also designed to run in places that regular antivirus software can't. This is useful in the case of a severely infected computer. Examples of these tools include McAfee Stinger and the Microsoft Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool (which is run automatically by Windows update). [edit] Issues of concern [edit] Performance Some antivirus software can considerably reduce performance. Users may disable the antivirus protection to overcome the performance loss, thus increasing the risk of infection. For maximum protection, the antivirus software needs to be enabled all the time[citation needed] — often at the cost of slower performance (see also software bloat). [edit] Security Antivirus programs can in themselves pose a security risk as they often run at the 'System' level of privileges and may hook the kernel — Both of these are necessary for the software to effectively do its job, however exploitation of the antivirus program itself could lead to privilege escalation and create a severe security threat. Arguably, use of antivirus software when compared to the principle of least privilege is largely ineffective when ramifications of the added software are taken into account. [edit] Unexpected renewal costs When purchasing antivirus software, the end-user license agreement may include a clause that the subscription will be automatically renewed, and the purchaser's credit card automatically billed, at the renewal time without explicit approval. For example, McAfee requires one to unsubscribe at least 60 days before the expiration of the present subscription.[16] Norton Antivirus also renews subscriptions automatically by default.[17] [edit] Privacy This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) Some antivirus programs may be configured to automatically upload infected or suspicious files to the developer for further analysis. Care should be taking when deploying antivirus software to ensure that documents containing confidential or proprietary information are not sent to the product's developer without prompting the user. [edit] Rogue security applications Some antivirus programs are actually malware masquerading as antivirus software, such as WinFixer and MS Antivirus.[18] [edit] False positives If an antivirus program is configured to immediately delete or quarantine infected files (or does this by default), false positives in essential files can render the operating system or some applications unusable.[19] [edit] System related issues Running multiple antivirus programs concurrently can degrade performance and create conflicts.[20] It is sometimes necessary to temporarily disable virus protection when installing major updates such as Windows Service Packs or updating graphics card drivers.[21] Active antivirus protection may partially or completely prevent the installation of a major update. [edit] Mobile devices This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) Viruses from the desktop and laptop world have either migrated to, or are assisted in their dispersal by mobile devices. Antivirus vendors are beginning to offer solutions for mobile handsets. These devices present significant challenges for antivirus software, such as microprocessor constraints, memory constraints and new signature updates to these mobile handsets. [edit] Effectiveness Studies in December 2007 have shown that the effectiveness of Antivirus software is much reduced from what it was a few years ago, particularly against unknown or zero day attacks. The German computer magazine c't found that detection rates for these threats had dropped from 40-50% in 2006 to 20-30% in 2007. At that time, the only exception was the NOD32 antivirus, which managed a detection rate of 68 percent.[3] The problem is magnified by the changing intent of virus authors. Some years ago it was obvious when a virus infection was present. The viruses of the day, written by amateurs, exhibited destructive behavior or pop-ups. Modern viruses are often written by professionals, financed by criminal organizations.[22] It is not in their interests to make their viruses or crimeware evident, because their purpose is to create botnets or steal information for as long as possible without the user realizing. If an infected user has a less-than-effective antivirus product that says the computer is clean, then the virus may go undetected. Nowadays, viruses generally do not attempt to overwhelm the Internet by flooding. Instead, viruses take a more controlled approach, as damaging the vector of infection does not result in financial gain. Traditional antivirus software solutions run virus scanners on schedule, on demand and some run scans in real time. If a virus or malware is located the suspect file is usually placed into a quarantine to terminate its chances of disrupting the system. Traditional antivirus solutions scan and compare against a publicised and regularly updated dictionary of malware otherwise known as a blacklist. Some antivirus solutions have additional options that employ an heuristic engine which further examines the file to see if it is behaving in a similar manner to previous examples of malware. A new technology utilized by a few antivirus solutions is whitelisting, this technology first checks if the file is trusted and only questioning those that are not.[23] With the addition of wisdom of crowds, antivirus solutions backup other antivirus techniques by harnessing the intelligence and advice of a community of trusted users to protect each other. By providing these multiple layers of malware protection and combining them with other security software it is possible to have more effective protection from the latest zero day attack and the latest crimeware than previously was the case with just one layer of protection. [edit] Cloud antivirus In current anti-virus software a new document or program is scanned with only one virus detector at a time. CloudAV would be able to send programs or documents to a network cloud where it will use multiple anti-virus and behavioural detection simultaneously. It is more thorough and also has the ability to check the new document or programs access history.[24] CloudAV is a cloud computing antivirus developed at a product of scientists of the University of Michigan. Each time a computer or device receives a new document or program, that item is automatically detected and sent to the antivirus cloud for analysis. The CloudAV system uses 12 different detectors that act together to tell the PC whether the item is safe to open.[24][25][26] [edit] Other computer protection methods This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) Beside antivirus software, virus infection prevention can be assisted by other means such as implementing a network firewall, or utilizing system virtualization[citation needed]. [edit] Antivirus Card This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009) This method was used in the early 1990s by DOS users and involves the installation of an ISA interface card which takes over the DOS interrupt and monitors the WRITE operation. [edit] Network Firewall Network firewalls prevent unknown programs and Internet processes from accessing the system protected. However, they are not antivirus systems as such and thus make no attempt to identify or remove anything. They may protect against infection from outside the protected computer or LAN, and limit the activity of any malicious software which is present by blocking incoming or outgoing requests on certain TCP/IP ports. A firewall is designed to deal with broader system threats that come from network connections into the system and is not an alternative to a virus protection system. [edit] System Virtualization This method virtualizes the working system, which prevents the actual system from being altered by a virus as it stops any alteration attempts to the whole system under virtualization. Although this may in general be the case, infection may spread to the non-virtual system if the virus is so conceived that after infecting the virtual system, it will break (crack) the virtualization environment by using one of its exploits and then spread to the non-virtual environment.[citation needed] In general, without any antivirus software the virtual system can still be infected and suffer damage or malicious action, but as soon as the system is shut down and restarted, all the changes and damage previously done to the virtual system will be reset. This way, the system is protected and the virus is removed. However, any damages to unprotected or unvirtualized data will remain, as will the malicious effects it has caused such as data theft.[citation needed] Since not all virtualization software loads the virtual computer from a standard (unchangeable) boot image, in certain cases it works just as any real computer which has its own (virtual) hard disk, i.e. infection with a virus will have to be cured in order to disinfect the system, or the virtual system will have to be destroyed (deleted) in order to get rid of the damage. This is the case for VMware and VirtualPC, if there is set up a virtual computer with its own virtual hard disk. Virtualization software like Sandboxie may prevent infection from spreading to the main (non-virtual) system and then indeed the only damage made by the virus is data/identity theft, i.e. stealing the data which is made available by the non-virtual system to the virtual browsing/document processing environment. As mentioned before, if Sandboxie has exploits, a virus may use such exploits in order to infect the non-virtual environment.[citation needed] [edit] Online detection Some online sites provide scanning of files uploaded by users. These online sites use multiple virus scanners and provide a report to the user about the uploaded file. Examples of online scanners include Jotti's malware scan[27], COMODO Automated Analysis System.[28] and VirusTotal.com[29]. [edit] See also * EICAR * Linux malware * List of antivirus software * List of computer viruses * List of trojan horses * Quarantine technology * Sandbox (computer security) * Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms * Virus hoax

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Current Certifications CompTIA’s certification exams themselves are actually administered through Pearson VUE and Prometric testing centers. In addition to certification, CompTIA also provides corporate membership. In April 2007, CompTIA's A+, Network+, and Security+ certifications became accredited by the American National Standards Institute. [edit] CompTIA A+ The A+ certification demonstrates competency as a computer technician. Officially, CompTIA A+ certification is a vendor neutral certification, that covers numerous technologies and operating systems from such vendors as Microsoft, Apple Inc., Novell and some of the Linux variations. Search Wikibooks Wikibooks has a book on the topic of A+ Certification The CompTIA A+ certification exam was developed in 1993. There have been three versions of the A+ exam, the 1993 objectives, the 2003 objectives and the 2006 objectives, which are broken down into two separate exams. Successful completion earns a designation as a "CompTIA Certified Computer Technician". The 2003 objectives exam was retired on June 30, 2007. The 2003 objectives contained the A+ Core Hardware Exam and the A+ Core Operating System Technologies Exam. The 2006 objectives require that a candidate successfully pass the A+ Essentials and one elective: IT technician, remote support technician, or depot technician. The A+ exam is intended for information technology professionals who have the equivalent of 500 hours of hands on experience. The exams are computer based and composed of multiple choice questions, of which there may be more than one correct answer. Over 800,000 people have earned the A+ credential worldwide, to date. Topics of the Core examination include IRQs, direct memory access, and practical computer repair, including the installation and repair of hard drives, modems, network cards, CPUs, power supplies, printers, and so forth. The focus of the exam is not theory, but practice. Sometimes graphics are used in exam questions. Topics included in the Operating Systems Exam include memory management, configuration files, and historical operating environments rather than newer, cutting edge technologies. In September 2006, the CompTIA A+ test was updated so that the test taker must take the CompTIA A+ Essentials (220-601) test along with one of three other tests (220-602, 220-603, or 220-604). Each of these elective exams offers candidates the opportunity to specialize their A+ certification to match their desired career path. With the introduction of the 2006 A+ exam, candidates were offered a grace period whereby both the 2003 and 2006 versions were available. As of June 2007, the 2003 version of exams is no longer available in the United States. In some countries, the grace period was extended to December 2007. The 2003 version was also extended in cases where the A+ certification exam was included in a course of study. Also, most legacy support questions have been excluded. The A+ certification may be used to qualify as an elective for Microsoft's MCSA and MCSE certification. [1] [edit] 2003 Exam [Retired] Time allocated: 90 minutes per exam. Number of questions: 100 (only 80 of which count) Scores needed to pass: 515 (hardware), 505 (OS) Total marks per exam: 900 220-301 CompTIA A+ 2003 Linear Core Exam (Retired December 31, 2008) 220-302 CompTIA A+ 2003 Linear OS Exam (Retired December 31, 2008) JK0-301 CompTIA A+ 2003 E2C Core Exam (Retired December 31, 2008) JK0-302 CompTIA A+ 2003 E2C OS Exam (Retired December 31, 2008) [edit] 2006 Exam CompTIA A+ Essentials (220-601) and one of the following: 220-602 or 220-603 or 220-604 Time allocated: 90 minutes per exam. Number of questions are as follows: 220-601 (Essentials) 100 220-602 (IT Technician) 90 220-603 (Remote Support Technician) 90 220-604 (Depot Technician) 90 Scores needed to pass: 220-601 (Essentials) 675 220-602 (IT Technician) 700 220-603 (Remote Support Technician) 220-604 (Depot Technician) 700 Total marks per exam: 900 [edit] CompTIA Network+ See also, Network Plus Certification on Wikibooks. Network+ is a certification that is used to measure skill as a network technician: understanding of network hardware, installation, and troubleshooting. Network+ was first launched in 1999, and exam updates followed in 2002, 2005, and 2009. Topics include network hardware, connections, software, the OSI Reference model, and different protocols used in local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). CompTIA recommends the A+ certification and nine months networking experience before sitting for the exam, but is not required. Network+ prepares one for continuing to Microsoft certifications and Cisco certifications. A combination A+/Network+ or A+/Server+ certification can fulfill the elective exam requirement of the Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator (MCSA) certification.[2] The exam itself is 90 minutes in duration consisting of 100 questions with a passing score of 720 out of 900. You are allowed a whiteboard and pen to assist you. N10-001 CompTIA Network+ Exam (1999 Edition) (Retired March 14, 2002) N10-002 CompTIA Network+ Exam (2002 Edition) (Retired June 30, 2005) N10-003 CompTIA Network+ Exam (2005 Edition) (Retired July 31, 2009) N10-004 CompTIA Network+ Exam (2009 Edition) (Being retired 2012) [edit] CompTIA Security+ Security+ is a certification dealing with computer security topics such as cryptography and access control. It was developed in 2002 to address the rise of security issues. Currently and according to CompTIA, there are more than 45,000 people around the world who have earned this certification.[3] It is recommended that candidates have two years of security-related work experience (although not a requirement) and pass the 100 question multiple choice exam. The Security+ exam can be applied as an elective to the MCSA:Security and the MCSE:Security specializations from Microsoft. The exam is 90 minutes in duration and consists of 100 questions with a passing score of 764 on a scale of 100-900 for SY0-101: Security+ (2002/2007 Edition). A new 2008 update of exam SY0-201 was released in October 2008 incorporating new objectives and has a passing score of 750 on a scale of 100-900. [4][5] SY0-101 CompTIA Security+ (2002/2007 Edition): Retired July 31, 2009 SY0-201 CompTIA Security+ (2008 Edition) BR0-001 CompTIA Security+ (Bridge Exam): Only for CompTIA Security+ certified professionals. Measures only the differences between the 2002/2007 exam objectives and the 2008 exam objectives. Has a minimum passing score of 560 on a scale of 100-900 [edit] CompTIA Server+ Server+ is CompTIA's certification pathway that focuses on server-specific hardware and operating systems, and certifies technical knowledge in areas such as RAID, SCSI, and multiple CPUs, as well as capabilities with server issues, including disaster recovery. It was developed in 2001, with an update that followed in 2005. The eight domains of the Server+ exam are General Server Hardware Knowledge, Installation, Configuration, Upgrading, Proactive Maintenance, Environment Troubleshooting and Problem Determination, and Disaster Recovery. A combination A+/Network+, A+/Server+ or Security+ certification(s) can fulfill the elective exam requirement for the Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator (MCSA) certification. The exam is 90 minutes in duration and consists of 80 questions with a passing score of 615 out of 900. CompTIA recommends that the candidate possesses 18–24 months of experience with Industry Standard Server Architecture (ISSA) technology before taking the exam. SK0-001 CompTIA Server+ (2001 Edition) (Retired March 31, 2005) SK0-002 CompTIA Server+ (2005 Edition) [edit] CompTIA CTT+ CompTIA’s CTT+ certification is a vendor-neutral certification that is applicable to training professionals in all industries. It proves the mastery of core instructor skills, including preparation, presentation, communication, facilitation, and evaluation in a classroom environment. The challenging CTT+ exam consists of two parts: a computer-based exam (CBT) and a video-based exam (VBT). CTT+ certification can be used as proof of instructional expertise for the following industry certifications: ACI (Adobe Certified Instructor), MCT (Microsoft Certified Trainer), and CNI (Certified Novell Instructor). [edit] CompTIA CDIA+ Certified Document Imaging Architect, or CDIA+, is a certification for competency in document imaging, document management, and enterprise content management. It certifies that one has the skills necessary to develop a system for scanning, storing, and retrieving digital versions of documents and is currently the only industry recognized certification in this area. The test covers the following domains: * Gather Business Requirements - 25% * Analyze Business Process - 22% * Recommend Solution - 16% * Design Solution - 24% * Plan for Implementation - 13% [edit] CompTIA Linux+ Linux+ is a certification of knowledge of Linux operating systems, from their installation and use to the basics of applicable free software and open source licenses. The Linux+ exam is intended for information technology professionals who have between six to twelve months of practical experience using Linux. The exam is broken down into several areas of Linux expertise: installation, management, configuration, security, documentation, and hardware. The test is a computer-based multiple-choice exam, with a question followed by four possible answers, at least one (but possibly more) of which must be correct. Common subject matter for exam topics include installation methods, boot loader configuration, managing packages (Debian and RPM management systems are covered), navigating directories via the command line, using the bash shell, security considerations, network administration including TCP/IP configuration), mounting file systems (such as NFS, SMB or ext3) and managing configuration files for the more common applications that Linux servers are expected to run. Although configuring and running the X Window system is included in the formal exam objectives, there are rarely any questions pertaining to this as the exam focuses on Linux as a server and network operating system rather than for use as a desktop platform. The Linux+ exam has undergone some criticism since its inception,[6] due to the excessive amount of hardware-related questions that were on the exam initially, many of which were covered on the A+ exam. The newest version of the exam, available as of February 2005, does away with this problem. The Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) has announced it will soon begin the process of updating its CompTIA Linux+ certification. The update process will begin with a Job Task Analysis (JTA), around July, 2008. The JTA will bring together subject matter experts in Linux to evaluate the job roles and tasks for IT professionals who work with open source operating systems. This information will be the input used to update the exam objectives and items. [edit] CompTIA Project+ Project+ is a certification showing that one has the knowledge needed to manage projects. CompTIA claims that Project+ is a globally recognized project management certification that provides validation of fundamental project management skills. Curriculum covers the entire project life cycle from initiation and planning through execution, acceptance, support and closure. CompTIA Project+ can be acquired in a quick and cost-effective manner price $239 USD. There are no prerequisites, and candidates are not required to submit an application or complete additional hours of continuing education. [edit] CompTIA RFID+ RFID+ tests the knowledge and skills necessary for working with radio-frequency identification technology. [edit] CompTIA Convergence+ Convergence+ validates the knowledge and skills in the area of communications technologies (CT), where datacomm, telephony/telecommunications, video and broadcast multimedia technologies combine into a single IP-based delivery system. It is an international, vendor-neutral certification that recognizes a technician’s ability to design, implement, and manage both data and voice networking. Although not a prerequisite, it is recommended that CompTIA Convergence+ candidates are CompTIA Network+ certified and have 18 to 24 months of work experience in areas that include data networking, VoIP, and other convergence-related technologies. [edit] CompTIA PDI+ PDI+ is for entry-level service and support technicians involved in the installation, connectivity, maintenance, repair, and support of devices in printing and document imaging technologies. The CompTIA PDI+ Beta Exam was available from July 24 through August 31, 2007. The live exam became available on January 7, 2008.[7] [edit] CEA-CompTIA DHTI+ Earning a CEA-CompTIA DHTI+ certification demonstrates that a candidate can configure, integrate, maintain, troubleshoot, and comprehend the basic design concepts of electronic and digital home systems. ___________________________________________

Types of trailers Main article: Trailer (vehicle) Almost any SUV, van, minivan, pickup truck, garden tractor or passenger car can be equipped to tow a trailer properly when given the correct equipment. Most trailers fit into one of five categories: * Flat bed or open trailers are platforms with no sides or stakes. This type of trailer works well for hauling large or unconventional shaped objects. * Enclosed trailers are fully covered by four sides and a roof. These types of trailers are generally used for carrying livestock since they protect the contents from weather. People also rent these types of trailers for moving boxes, furniture and other materials. * Boat trailers are used specifically for pulling boats. These types of trailers are designed for easy loading in and out of the water and are purchased based on the specific type and style of boat they will be hauling. * Recreational vehicles (RV) are utility vehicles or vans that are often equipped with living facilities. These types of trailers can be attached to the back of most any road vehicle and are commonly used for camping outings or road trips. * Tank trailers, which are trailers designed to contain liquids such as milk, water or motor fuel. [edit] Towing safety There are many safety considerations to properly towing a caravan or trailer / travel trailer starting with vehicle towing capacity and ranging through equalizer hitches to properly and legally connecting the safety chains. According to the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Association, more than 65,000 crashes involving passenger vehicles towing trailers occurred in 2004 in the US, jumping nearly 20 percent from the previous year. In 2006, Master Lock did their annual study on towing safety to see how many Americans tow their cargo correctly. The study, Towing Troubles included responses from trailer owners across the country and found that while the majority of trailer owners believe they know what they’re doing when it comes to towing, most were lacking the proper education. Master Lock reported that 70 percent of trailer owners did not fully know the correct way to tow their cargo. An important factor in towing safety is tongue weight, the weight with which the trailer presses down on the tow vehicle's hitch. Insufficient tongue weight can cause the trailer to sway back and forth when towed. Too much tongue weight can cause problems with the tow vehicle.[1] [edit] Towbar Wiring [edit] Vehicle Specific Towbar Wiring Out of the thousands of cars on UK roads with towbars fitted, most are likely to have fitted towing electrics which are ‘hidden’ from the car. This electrical installation is commonly called ‘By-pass electrics’. This system is used to protect the car's lighting systems from potential damage if wiring in a trailer should malfunction. It is a tried and tested system in very wide use. Bypass systems are found both in "universal" (non-vehicle-specific) systems and in dedicated and OEM systems. Since the early 2000s, vehicle technology has moved forward introducing CANbus network systems which allowed the interaction of different systems, and also the detection of a trailer or caravan. In some cases, the manufacturers have not only designed automobiles to sense the presence of a trailer, but they have also created enhanced new features within the systems connected to the network. This actually makes it important that these particular vehicles can "see" the trailer or caravan A few of these new features are for safety and stability, and most are merely convenience things like automatically switching off the rear fog light and parking sensors. The main new safety feature, appearing now on some cars, is the Trailer Stability Program which automatically turns on when detected in the network through the dedicated sensors. Some of the advanced systems being introduced in certain vehicles, that may make use of detecting the presence of a trailer are: lane change assistant, brake electronics, adaptive cruise control, suspension system (ASS), engine electronics, engine cooling system, parking aids, and reversing camera. TSP or Trailer Stability Program is one feature which has been added to some vehicles, to help correct the ‘snaking’ action of a trailer. With such advanced technology, some braking systems have even evolved further by being operated electronically, without the need for hydraulics. Braking can become more controlled with faster braking efficiency when towing. Some suspension systems can now detect a trailer and allow for a more level towing adjustment when the load is applied on the towing hitch. ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) systems are meant to ‘detect’ a trailer in order to create a greater braking distance between vehicles. It might be considered unwise to bypass such vehicles' trailer detection systems as these vehicles may be designed to behave in a different way when a trailer is attached. Some manufacturers either put a prepared connector in the vehicle which is a preparation on the network (Ford, Volvo) to accept a specially designed towing module, or have designed the trailer to be ‘detected’ through connections directly onto the databus (VAG, BMW). With such connections the vehicle will know when a trailer plug is connected to the socket. On vehicles that do not have safety features that depend on the vehicle sensing the presence of a trailer, bypass systems, properly installed by expert fitters, are very efficient and cost effective alternatives to expensive OEM and other dedicated kits. All bypass kits will be type approved for use on vehicles (check for the (e) mark). They have the built-in advantage of completely isolating the trailer from the vehicle's lighting system, thus protecting against damage to the car caused by any failure within the trailer's wiring. [edit] Universal By-pass Electrics This system is used to protect the car's lighting systems from potential damage if wiring in a trailer should malfunction. It is a tried and tested system in very wide use. Bypass systems are found both in "universal" (non vehicle-dedicated) systems and in dedicated and OEM systems. It works by taking a small current signal from the vehicle's lighting harness to trigger a relay and send a direct power supply to the towing socket. It does not communicate with the vehicle and will not activate any safety or convenience systems. It has the built-in advantage of isolating the trailer wiring from that of the towing vehicle and thus protecting the car's wiring from damage should the wiring in a towed trailer malfunction. It is not advised for use in cars that depend on sensing the presence of a trailer to activate towing-related safety features within the car.(See Trailer Stability Programme) [edit] 12N, 12S or 13 Pin Sockets 12N is the designation for the older 7-pin lighting socket, used when towing just a trailer or caravan (without the need for charge or fridge functions). In the UK it has all the functions of the rear lights on a vehicle except for reverse. These sockets are not waterproof and suffer from "pin burn-out" when worn. 12S is an additional 7-pin socket mainly used when towing caravans. It consists of a permanent 12v power supply, and usually a switched 12v power supply for the fridge (UK). It also contains a feed for the reverse lights on the caravan. 13 Pin is the new ISO standard (ISO 11446) socket being fitted to all new caravans sold in 2009. It can be wired with the same functions as both the 12N and 12S sockets, or with just the lighting functions including reverse (required on all trailers and caravans from 2010). The socket has been designed to be waterproof, easy to fit/remove (twist operation), the same size as one 12N socket (ideal for detachable towbars as unobtrusive), and with good fitting quality terminals that avoid any pin burnout or voltage failure. [edit] Trailer Stability Program or TSP Another advance in trailer safety is the development of the Trailer Stability Program, built into some Electronic Stability Control systems in today's motor vehicles. These systems can detect the "snaking" of a trailer or caravan and counteract it by braking individual wheels, reducing engine torque and slowing the vehicle down. [edit] Towing capacity Morris C8 towing.ogv Play video A Morris C8 towing a 25 pounder Towing capacity is a measure describing the upper limit to the weight of a trailer a vehicle can tow. In the United States, towing capacity is expressed in pounds, while other countries express the limit in kilograms. Some countries demand that trucks and buses have the maximum trailer weight and eventually maximum trailer length signed close to the coupling device, while this is rare with smaller cars or pickup trucks.